Polybius, Histories

Translation

Bibliography

(3)

Author: Salmon, E. T.

Year: 1960

Title: The Strategy of the Second Punic War

Source type: Journal Article

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Author: Reid, J. S.

Year: 1913

Title: Problems of the Second Punic War

Source type: Journal Article

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Author: Kramer, Frank R.

Year: 1948

Title: Massilian Diplomacy before the Second Punic War

Source type: Journal Article

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Archaeology

Places

Book 2 - Chapter 21

<w lemma="%2Agala%2Ftai">Γαλάται</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnwn">προειρημένων</w> <w lemma="e%29lattwma%2Ftwn">ἐλαττωμάτων</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fth">ἔτη</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="pe%2Fnte">πέντε</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tettara%2Fkonta">τετταράκοντα</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="h%28suxi%2Fan">ἡσυχίαν</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fsxon">ἔσχον</w>, <w lemma="ei%29rh%2Fnhn">εἰρήνην</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fgontes">ἄγοντες</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fous">Ῥωμαίους</w>.

<w lemma="e%29pei%5C">ἐπεὶ</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="au%29to%2Fptai">αὐτόπται</w> <w lemma="gegono%2Ftes">γεγονότες</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="deinw%3Dn">δεινῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="zh%3Dn">ζῆν</w> <w lemma="e%29cexw%2Frhsan">ἐξεχώρησαν</w> <w lemma="dia%5C">διὰ</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="xro%2Fnon">χρόνον</w>, <w lemma="e%29pege%2Fnonto">ἐπεγένοντο</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="ne%2Foi">νέοι</w>, <w lemma="qumou%3D">θυμοῦ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="a%29logi%2Fstou">ἀλογίστου</w> <w lemma="plh%2Freis">πλήρεις</w>, <w lemma="a%29%2Fpeiroi">ἄπειροι</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="a%29o%2Fratoi">ἀόρατοι</w> <w lemma="panto%5Cs">παντὸς</w> <w lemma="kakou%3D">κακοῦ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Fshs">πάσης</w> <w lemma="perista%2Fsews">περιστάσεως</w>,

<w lemma="au%29%3Dqis">αὖθις</w> <w lemma="h%29%2Frcanto">ἤρξαντο</w> <w lemma="ta%5C">τὰ</w> <w lemma="kaqestw%3Dta">καθεστῶτα</w> <w lemma="kinei%3Dn">κινεῖν</w>, <w lemma="o%28%5C">ὃ</w> <w lemma="fu%2Fsin">φύσιν</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fxei">ἔχει</w> <w lemma="gi%2Fnesqai">γίνεσθαι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="traxu%2Fnesqai">τραχύνεσθαι</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="tuxo%2Fntwn">τυχόντων</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fous">Ῥωμαίους</w>, <w lemma="e%29pispa%3Dsqai">ἐπισπᾶσθαι</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29%2Falpewn">Ἄλπεων</w> <w lemma="%2Agala%2Ftas">Γαλάτας</w>.

<w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ou%29%3Dn">οὖν</w> <w lemma="prw%3Dton">πρῶτον</w> <w lemma="xwri%5Cs">χωρὶς</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="plh%2Fqous">πλήθους</w> <w lemma="di%27">δι᾽</w> <w lemma="au%29tw%3Dn">αὐτῶν</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="h%28goume%2Fnwn">ἡγουμένων</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="a%29porrh%2Ftois">ἀπορρήτοις</w> <w lemma="e%29pra%2Ftteto">ἐπράττετο</w> <w lemma="ta%5C">τὰ</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fna">προειρημένα</w>.

<w lemma="dio%5C">διὸ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="paragenome%2Fnwn">παραγενομένων</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2Atransalpi%2Fnwn">Τρανσαλπίνων</w> <w lemma="e%28%2Fws">ἕως</w> <w lemma="%2A%29arimi%2Fnou">Ἀριμίνου</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="duna%2Fmews">δυνάμεως</w>, <w lemma="diapisth%2Fsanta">διαπιστήσαντα</w> <w lemma="ta%5C">τὰ</w> <w lemma="plh%2Fqh">πλήθη</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2Aboi%2Fwn">Βοίων</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="stasia%2Fsanta">στασιάσαντα</w> <w lemma="pro%2Fs">πρός</w> <w lemma="te">τε</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="e%28autw%3Dn">ἑαυτῶν</w> <w lemma="proestw%3Dtas">προεστῶτας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="paragegono%2Ftas">παραγεγονότας</w> <w lemma="a%29nei%3Dlon">ἀνεῖλον</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="i%29di%2Fous">ἰδίους</w> <w lemma="basilei%3Ds">βασιλεῖς</w> <w lemma="%2A%29%2Fatin">Ἄτιν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Aga%2Flaton">Γάλατον</w>, <w lemma="kate%2Fkoyan">κατέκοψαν</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29llh%2Flous">ἀλλήλους</w>, <w lemma="sumbalo%2Fntes">συμβαλόντες</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="parata%2Fcewn">παρατάξεων</w>.

<w lemma="o%28%2Fte">ὅτε</w> <w lemma="dh%5C">δὴ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%3Doi">Ῥωμαῖοι</w> <w lemma="kata%2Ffoboi">κατάφοβοι</w> <w lemma="geno%2Fmenoi">γενόμενοι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Ffodon">ἔφοδον</w> <w lemma="e%29ch%3Dlqon">ἐξῆλθον</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="stratope%2Fdou:">στρατοπέδου·</w> <w lemma="sune%2Fntes">συνέντες</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="au%29qai%2Freton">αὐθαίρετον</w> <w lemma="katafqora%5Cn">καταφθορὰν</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2Agalatw%3Dn">Γαλατῶν</w> <w lemma="au%29%3Dqis">αὖθις</w> <w lemma="a%29nexw%2Frhsan">ἀνεχώρησαν</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="oi%29kei%2Fan">οἰκείαν</w>.

<w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tou%3Dton">τοῦτον</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="fo%2Fbon">φόβον</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Ftei">ἔτει</w> <w lemma="pe%2Fmptw%7C">πέμπτῳ</w>, <w lemma="%2Ama%2Frkou">Μάρκου</w> <w lemma="%2Alepe%2Fdou">Λεπέδου</w> <w lemma="strathgou%3Dntos">στρατηγοῦντος</w>, <w lemma="kateklhrou%2Fxhsan">κατεκληρούχησαν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="%2Agalati%2Fa%7C">Γαλατίᾳ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%3Doi">Ῥωμαῖοι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2Apikenti%2Fnhn">Πικεντίνην</w> <w lemma="prosagoreuome%2Fnhn">προσαγορευομένην</w> <w lemma="xw%2Fran">χώραν</w>, <w lemma="e%29c">ἐξ</w> <w lemma="h%28%3Ds">ἧς</w> <w lemma="nikh%2Fsantes">νικήσαντες</w> <w lemma="e%29ce%2Fbalon">ἐξέβαλον</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2Ash%2Fnwnas">Σήνωνας</w> <w lemma="prosagoreuome%2Fnous">προσαγορευομένους</w> <w lemma="%2Agala%2Ftas">Γαλάτας</w>,

<w lemma="%2Agai+%2Fou">Γαΐου</w> <w lemma="%2Aflamini%2Fou">Φλαμινίου</w> <w lemma="tau%2Fthn">ταύτην</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="dhmagwgi%2Fan">δημαγωγίαν</w> <w lemma="ei%29shghsame%2Fnou">εἰσηγησαμένου</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="politei%2Fan">πολιτείαν</w>, <w lemma="h%28%5Cn">ἣν</w> <w lemma="dh%5C">δὴ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fois">Ῥωμαίοις</w> <w lemma="w%28s">ὡς</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fpos">ἔπος</w> <w lemma="ei%29pei%3Dn">εἰπεῖν</w> <w lemma="fate%2Fon">φατέον</w> <w lemma="a%29rxhgo%5Cn">ἀρχηγὸν</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="gene%2Fsqai">γενέσθαι</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="e%29pi%5C">ἐπὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="xei%3Dron">χεῖρον</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="dh%2Fmou">δήμου</w> <w lemma="diastrofh%3Ds">διαστροφῆς</w>, <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fan">αἰτίαν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="tau%3Dta">ταῦτα</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmou">πολέμου</w> <w lemma="susta%2Fntos">συστάντος</w> <w lemma="au%29toi%3Ds">αὐτοῖς</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnous">προειρημένους</w>.

<w lemma="polloi%5C">πολλοὶ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ga%5Cr">γὰρ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2Agalatw%3Dn">Γαλατῶν</w> <w lemma="u%28pedu%2Fonto">ὑπεδύοντο</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="pra%3Dcin">πρᾶξιν</w>, <w lemma="ma%2Flista">μάλιστα</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="%2Aboi%3Doi">Βοῖοι</w> <w lemma="dia%5C">διὰ</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="suntermonei%3Dn">συντερμονεῖν</w> <w lemma="th%3D%7C">τῇ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fwn">Ῥωμαίων</w> <w lemma="xw%2Fra%7C">χώρᾳ</w>, <w lemma="nomi%2Fsantes">νομίσαντες</w> <w lemma="ou%29x">οὐχ</w> <w lemma="u%28pe%5Cr">ὑπὲρ</w> <w lemma="h%28gemoni%2Fas">ἡγεμονίας</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fti">ἔτι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="dunastei%2Fas">δυναστείας</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fous">Ῥωμαίους</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="au%29tou%5Cs">αὐτοὺς</w> <w lemma="poih%2Fsasqai">ποιήσασθαι</w> <w lemma="po%2Flemon">πόλεμον</w>, <w lemma="a%29ll%27">ἀλλ᾽</w> <w lemma="u%28pe%5Cr">ὑπὲρ</w> <w lemma="o%28losxerou%3Ds">ὁλοσχεροῦς</w> <w lemma="e%29canasta%2Fsews">ἐξαναστάσεως</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="katafqora%3Ds">καταφθορᾶς</w>.

After these reverses, the Gauls remained quiet and at peace with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> for forty-five years.

But when, as time went on, those who had actually witnessed the terrible struggle were no more, and a younger generation had taken their place, full of unreflecting passion and absolutely without experience of suffering or peril,

they began again, as was natural, to disturb the settlement, becoming exasperated against the Romans on the least pretext and inviting the Alpine Gauls to make common cause with them.

At first these advances were made secretly by their chiefs without the knowledge of the multitude;

so that when a force of Transalpine Gauls advanced as far as <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> the Boian populace were suspicious of them, and quarrelling with their own leaders as well as with the strangers, killed their kings, Atis and Galatus, and had a pitched battle with the other Gauls in which many fell on either side.

The Romans had been alarmed by the advance of the Gauls, and a legion was on its way; but, on hearing of the Gauls' self-inflicted losses, they returned home.

Five years after this alarm, in the consulship of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the Romans divided among their citizens the territory in <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Gaul&groupId=598&placeId=1108">Gaul</a> known as Picenum, from which they had ejected the Senones when they conquered them.

Gaius Flaminius was the originator of this popular policy, which we must pronounce to have been, one may say, the first step in the demoralization of the populace, as well as the cause of the war with the Gauls which followed.

For what prompted many of the Gauls and especially the Boii, whose territory bordered on that of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, to take action was the conviction that now the Romans no longer made war on them for the sake of supremacy and sovereignty, but with a view to their total expulsion and extermination.

Walbank Commentary

Overview

2.13.0 - 2.35.0

<a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> and the Gauls The Gallic invasion of 225 gives P. occasion to outline the previous history of the Gauls in <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Italy&groupId=656&placeId=1199">Italy</a>, prefixing a geographical survey of Cisalpine <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Gaul&groupId=598&placeId=1108">Gaul</a> (14–17). In i. 6. 8 the Celts were excepted from the peoples of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Italy&groupId=656&placeId=1199">Italy</a> mastered before the Roman crossing into <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Sicily&groupId=973&placeId=1724">Sicily</a>. Thus the present digression falls into place as part of the story of how the Romans amassed sufficient resources to justify their ambitions for world-dominion (i. 3. 10); in addition it is relevant to Hannibal's invasion (14. 2).

2.17.0 - 2.35.0

The Gallic Wars. 18–20 cover the earlier conflicts (390–282), 21–35 those from 237 to 221 including the tumultus of 225. The source for most of this is probably Fabius Pictor (cf. i. 14. 1 n.), who himself took part in the war of 225 (cf. Oros. iv. 13. 6, qui eidem bello inter- fuit); consequently P. reproduces Fabius' tendency to depict the Romans as the victims of aggression, and acting in self-defence. See De Sanctis, iii. 1. 305 n. 103; Leuze, Jahrzhlung, 142–5; Beloch, RG, 139–40; Gelzer, Hermes, 1933, 147; Bung, 151 ff. (who, however, argues for the use of other sources besides Fabius). The chronology of the Gallic Wars is discussed in detail by Pdech (CRAI, 1955, 367–74; Mthode, 475–84), who argues that P.'s system is based on Olympiad years and that cardinal numbers imply an interval one year longer than that indicated by ordinals. He gives the following table (Mthode, 477): <table cols="4" rows="8"> <row> <cell>1.</cell> <cell>Capture of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, basic date</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 98, 2 = 387/6</cell> </row> <row> <cell>2.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ ῷ</w> after this, the Celts advance to Alba (ii. 18. 6)</cell> <cell>30</cell> <cell>Ol. 105, 4 = 357/6</cell> </row> <row> <cell>3.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ</w> after this, a new invasion (ii. 18.7)</cell> <cell>12</cell> <cell>Ol. 108, 4 = 345/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>4.</cell> <cell>Thirteen years' quiet ( <w lang="el-GR">ἔ)</w>, then the Gauls treat with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> (ii. 18. 9)</cell> <cell>13 1</cell> <cell>Ol. 112, 2 = 331/0</cell> </row> <row> <cell>5.</cell> <cell>Thirty years' peace <w lang="el-GR">(ἔ</w> ), then invavasion of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Etruria&groupId=582&placeId=1089">Etruria</a> (ii. 19. 1)</cell> <cell>301</cell> <cell>Ol. 120, 1 = 300/299</cell> </row> <row> <cell>6.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">μὰ ὲ ῦα ἔ ῳ</w> a Gallo-Samnite coalition; battle of Sentinum (ii. 19. 5)</cell> <cell>4</cell> <cell>Ol. 121, 1 = 296/5</cell> </row> <row> <cell>7.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">μέ ἐ ῶ έ</w>, a new invasion, siege of Arretium, Etrusco-Boian coalition, battle of Lake Vadimo (ii. 19. 8)</cell> <cell>10 1</cell> <cell>Ol. 123, 4 = 285/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>8.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ῷ? ὰ ἐῷ</w>, new attack and treaty with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> (ii. 20. 4)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 124, 1 = 284/3</cell> </row> </table> <table cols="4" rows="7"> <row> <cell>9.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ έ ὶ</w> quiet, then war between the transalpine Gauls and the Boii (ii. 21. 1)</cell> <cell>451</cell> <cell>Ol. 135, 3 = 238/7</cell> </row> <row> <cell>10.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἒ έμῳ</w> after this, colonization of Picenum (ii. 21. 7)</cell> <cell>5</cell> <cell>Ol. 136, 4 = 233/5</cell> </row> <row> <cell>11.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἒ ὀῳ</w> after this, invasion of the Gaesatae, battle of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Telamon&groupId=1012&placeId=1781">Telamon</a> (ii. 23. 16)</cell> <cell>8</cell> <cell>Ol. 138, 4 = 225/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>12.</cell> <cell>Campaign of Q. Fulvius and T. Manlius, coss. 224, in Cisalpine <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Gaul&groupId=598&placeId=1108">Gaul</a> (ii. 31. 8)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 1 = 224/3</cell> </row> <row> <cell>13.</cell> <cell>Campaigns of P. Furius and C. Flaminius, coss.s 223, against the Anares (ii. 32. 1)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 2 = 223/2</cell> </row> <row> <cell>14.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ῷ ᾽ ἑ ῆ ἔ</w>, campaign of Cn. Cornelius and M. Claudius, coss. 222, against the Insubres (ii. 34. 1)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 3 = 222/1</cell> </row> <row> <cell /> <cell>Total</cell> <cell>166</cell> <cell /> </row> </table> For criticism of the chronology of Pdech for the Gallic wars (set out in Vol. II, addendum on pp. 631–2), and of that proposed by Werner, Der Beginn der römischen Republik (Munich, 1963), 58 ff., see R. M. Errington, JRS, 1967, 101–2, 105. See also Forni, Athen. 1953, 204 ff.

Specifics

2.21.1 - 2.21.1

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἔτη . . . πέντε καὶ τετταράκοντα</w>:</emph> calculated inclusively by Mommsen (Röm. Forsch. ii. 362) as 281–237, with the appearance of the Gauls at <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> (§ 5) in 236. But the forty-five years must be reckoned from 282, the year of the peace (20. 6), and are therefore 282–238; and P.'s date for the events at <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> is consequently 237, which is confirmed by his dating Aemilius Lepidus' consulship (232) five years later (21. 7). (Alternatively P. may be reckoning exclusively, 282–237, with events at <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> still in the latter year.) P.'s account of a single campaign in 237 conflicts with the annalistic tradition of a three years' war under the consuls of 238, 237, and 236 (Zon. viii. 18; Oros. iv. 12. 1; Flor. i. 19. 5; Eutrop. iii. 2; Livy, ep. 20), with the <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> incident in 236 (21. 5 n.). P.'s dates for the remaining Gallic incidents (cf. 18. 6 n.) are: <table cols="3" rows="7"> <row> <cell>Reference</cell> </row> <row> <cell> Gauls at Arretium <emph rend="bold">. .</emph> </cell> <cell>284</cell> <cell>19. 7</cell> </row> <row> <cell> Vadimo <emph rend="bold">. . . .</emph> </cell> <cell>283</cell> <cell>1–2 interval omitted</cell> </row> <row> <cell> Defeat of Boii: peace <emph rend="bold">.</emph> </cell> <cell>282</cell> <cell>20. 4, 6 <w lang="el-GR">ῷ ὰ ό ἐ</w>v<w lang="el-GR">ῷ</w></cell> </row> <row> <cell> Gauls at <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> <emph rend="bold">. .</emph> </cell> <cell>237</cell> <cell>21. 1, 4–5 <w lang="el-GR">ἔ έ ὶ ά</w></cell> </row> <row> <cell> Division of Ager Gallicus <emph rend="bold">.</emph> </cell> <cell>232</cell> <cell>21. 7 <w lang="el-GR">ἔ έμῳ</w></cell> </row> <row> <cell> Gallic tumultus <emph rend="bold">. .</emph> </cell> <cell>225</cell> <cell>23. 1 <w lang="el-GR">ἔ . . . ὀόῳ</w> (sic)</cell> </row> </table> The failure of the Gauls to exploit Roman embarrassment during the First Punic War is discussed by De Sanctis (iii. 1. 280), who suggests that it was due to a successful Roman policy of appeasement coupled with Carthaginian failure to develop the necessary contacts and to buy Gallic help.

2.21.3 - 2.21.3

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τὰ καθεστῶτα κινεῖν</w>:</emph> 'to disturb the equilibrium', viz. the peace of 282. P. ignores the events of 238, which the annalistic tradition, probably following Valerius Antias, magnifies into an astounding victory (after defeat) for the consul, P. Valerius Falto.

2.21.5 - 2.21.5

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">Ἀριμίνου</w>:</emph> on its site see 14. 11 n. It was originally Umbrian (Strabo, v. 217), but a Latin colony was set up in 268 (Vell. Pat. <milestone unit="page" n="191">[191]</milestone> i. 14. 7); cf. U. Ewins, BSR, 1952, 54. Zonaras (viii. 18) adds details suggesting that the dispute of the Gauls, ending in a pitched battle, was the direct result of a policy of delay and temporizing on the part of the consuls. The Fabian account in P. is very different. Fear of the Gauls ensured the dispatch of a legion from <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>; but on learning of the Gallic broil it returned. Yet clearly the same occasion is meant; and if the date is 237, Zonaras' error may derive from some confusion between the consuls L. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus (237) and P. Cornelius Lentulus Caudinus (236).

2.21.7 - 2.21.7

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἔτει πέμπτῳ . . . κατεκληρούΧησαν . . . τὴν Πικεντίνην . . . Χώραν</w>:</emph> the reference to the consulship of M. Aemilius Lepidus fixes the year as 232. Cicero (de sen. 11; cf. acad. ii. 13), drawing on Atticus, makes it 228, perhaps confusing the second consulship of Q. Fabius Maximus with his first, during which Flaminius entered office (Niccolini, Fasti dei tribuni della plebe (Milan, 1934), 88–89); in any case, it is agreed that P.'s date is preferable; cf. De Sanctis (iii. 1. 333 n. 181); Mommsen (Röm. Forsch. ii. 401 n. 23); and other authorities quoted by Aymard (REA, 1943, 219 n. 1). Cicero describes Flaminius' bill as the 'lex de agro Gallico et Piceno uiritim diuidundo' (Brut. 57). On the ager Gallicus between the Aesis and <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> see 17. 8 n.; the Senones were completely expelled after Vadimo (or, according to P., the year before; cf. 19. 11). It is described by Cato (fg. 43 Peter): 'ager Gallicus Romanus uocatur, qui uiritim cis <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> datus est ultra agrum Picentium.' The ager Picenus, as this quotation indicates, is normally placed south of the Aesis; but it also indicates that Picenum in this sense was excluded from Flaminius' distributions. Nor is there any evidence for the expulsion of the Picentes (on Strabo, v. 251 see Beloch, RG, 475). Moreover, it appears from Livy (ep. 15, <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Ariminum&groupId=362&placeId=691">Ariminum</a> in Piceno) that P. was not alone in identifying the ager Gallicus and the ager Picenus. The likelihood is therefore that, despite Cicero's formula, Flaminius' bill dealt only with the ager Gallicus; cf. Frank (ES, i. 61) and Beloch (RG, 475–6); contra De Sanctis (iii. 1. 333 n. 184); on the geography, Nissen (It. Land. ii. 377).

2.21.8 - 2.21.8

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">Γαΐου Φλαμινίου ταύτην τὴν δημαγωγίαν εἰσηγησαμένου</w>:</emph> C. Flaminius was a plebeian and a nouus homo. His land measure was designed to restore the firm link between the Roman proletariat and the land, and therein foreshadowed the work of the Gracchi. It met with strong opposition from the senate, which had profited by the occupation of public land, and was eventually carried by Flaminius as tribune in the popular assembly (Cic. de inu. ii. 52; Livy, xxi. 63. 2; Val. Max. v. 4. 5). On Flaminius see Mnzer (RE, 'Flaminius (2)', cols. 2496 ff.), and on his land bill Frank (CAH, vii. 806–7; ES, i. 60–61), De Sanctis (iii. 1. 332–4), Meyer (Kl. Schr. ii. 390–3), Fraccaro (Athen., 1919, 76 ff.), K. Jacobs (Caius Flaminius <milestone unit="page" n="192">[192]</milestone> (diss. Leiden, Hoorn, 1937), 37 ff.). P.'s hostile attitude towards Flaminius (cf. 33. 7 ff., iii. 80, 82 ff.) seems to reflect the hostility of his senatorial opponents transmitted through Fabius Pictor (cf. Gelzer, Hermes, 1933, 150; Klotz, WJ, 1946, 156; contra Bung, 174 n. 3). Why does he regard the land-bill as 'the first step in the demoralization of the people'? The view of Ed. Meyer (Kl. Schr. i <emph rend="superscript">2</emph> . 374; cf. Unger, Phil., 1882, 617 n. 15), that P. inserted this passage after the Lex Sempronia of Tiberius Gracchus in 133, has been widely accepted by Cuntz, De Sanctis, Bung, and others. But probably too much has been read into P.'s words. <w lang="el-GR">ἡ ἐπὶ τὸ Χεῖρον τοῦ δήμου διαστροφή</w> is simply the outburst of popular assertiveness associated especially with Flaminius' career, which ended in the fiasco of the aequatum imperium of Fabius and Minucius (iii. 103. 4), and the election of such leaders as Flaminius and Varro who, at Trasimene and <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Cannae&groupId=430&placeId=797">Cannae</a>, were responsible (in the eyes of the Senate) for bringing <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> within an inch of ruin. Clearly P. had an exaggerated picture of the role of the tribunate at this time (cf. iii. 87. 8), and an exaggeration of Flaminius' maleficent role fits excellently the strange observations on the tribunate at vi. 16. 3–5 (q.v.). Flaminius is further attacked for precipitating the Gallic tumultus of 225. Against this it has been urged that the tumultus did not occur for seven years (23. 1 n.), and that when it did come, it took the traditional form of a plundering expedition, not prepared to try the final issue (26. 4 ff.); see Meyer (Kl. Schr. ii. 395), De Sanctis (iii. 1. 305), and Frank (CAH, vii. 807). But, as Gelzer points out (Hermes, 1933, 150), the implementation of the bill took a considerable time, the rallying of Gauls from both sides of the <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Alps&groupId=313&placeId=609">Alps</a> was necessarily slow, and the Romans had anticipated trouble for several years (13. 5); and certainly Flaminius is subsequently associated with a policy of expansion in north <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Italy&groupId=656&placeId=1199">Italy</a>. Both Gelzer, Kl. Schr. iii. 206, and Bleicken, 29, still associate P.'s criticism of Flaminius with the events of 133; but see L. R. Taylor, JRS, 1962, 19–27, on the revolutionary trends in forebears of the Gracchi. On Flamininus see Cassola, 209–18. Z. Yavetz, Athenaeum, 1962, 325–44, argues that P.'s criticism of Flaminius arises out of his general political attitude, and does not reflect any prejudice in his source. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἣν δὴ καὶ Ῥωμαίοις . . . φατέον ἀρχηγὸν κτλ</w>.:</emph> 'which we must admit to have proved for the Romans virtually . . .' (so Schweighaeuser, Shuckburgh, Paton, Treves, taking '<w lang="el-GR">Ῥωμαίοις</w> as dative of disadvantage) or 'which even the Romans must virtually admit . . .'<w lang="el-GR">(Ῥωμαίοις</w> dative of the agent with <w lang="el-GR">φατέον)</w>. The second is highly improbable, but is apparently the interpretation of Frank, who writes (CAH, vii. 806), 'we hear . . . that the Senate considered it a measure which began "the demoralisation of the people" '. But if '<w lang="el-GR">Ῥωμαίοις</w> were 'the Senate', it would be rather P.'s than Flaminius' contemporaries. On the use of <w lang="el-GR">ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν</w> to soften an expression (here of criticism) see Wunderer (i. 5 n. 1).

2.21.9 - 2.21.9

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οὐχ ὑπὲρ ἡγεμονίας ἔτι κτλ</w>.:</emph> the motivation of the Gallic action is probably from Fabius' indictment of Flaminius' policy; though in fact the establishment of further colonies would have aroused Gallic <milestone unit="page" n="193">[193]</milestone> apprehension equally. The words <w lang="el-GR">τὸν πρὸς αὐτοὺς πόλεμον</w> indicate that the Gauls regarded the land distribution as a preliminary to offensive warfare. In 22. 1 <w lang="el-GR">εὐθέως</w> is an exaggeration from the same source.

Addenda & corrigenda

2.18.0 - 2.35.0

<emph rend="bold">18–35.</emph> The chronology of the Gallic Wars. This is discussed in detail by Pdech (CRAI, 1955, 367–74; Mthode, 475–84), who argues that P.'s system is based on Olympiad years and that cardinal numbers imply an interval one year longer than that indicated by ordinals. He gives the following table (Mthode, 477): <table cols="4" rows="8"> <row> <cell>1.</cell> <cell>Capture of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, basic date</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 98, 2 = 387/6</cell> </row> <row> <cell>2.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ ῷ</w> after this, the Celts advance to Alba (ii. 18. 6)</cell> <cell>30</cell> <cell>Ol. 105, 4 = 357/6</cell> </row> <row> <cell>3.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ</w> after this, a new invasion (ii. 18.7)</cell> <cell>12</cell> <cell>Ol. 108, 4 = 345/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>4.</cell> <cell>Thirteen years' quiet ( <w lang="el-GR">ἔ)</w>, then the Gauls treat with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> (ii. 18. 9)</cell> <cell>13 1</cell> <cell>Ol. 112, 2 = 331/0</cell> </row> <row> <cell>5.</cell> <cell>Thirty years' peace <w lang="el-GR">(ἔ</w> ), then invavasion of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Etruria&groupId=582&placeId=1089">Etruria</a> (ii. 19. 1)</cell> <cell>301</cell> <cell>Ol. 120, 1 = 300/299</cell> </row> <row> <cell>6.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">μὰ ὲ ῦα ἔ ῳ</w> a Gallo-Samnite coalition; battle of Sentinum (ii. 19. 5)</cell> <cell>4</cell> <cell>Ol. 121, 1 = 296/5</cell> </row> <row> <cell>7.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">μέ ἐ ῶ έ</w>, a new invasion, siege of Arretium, Etrusco-Boian coalition, battle of Lake Vadimo (ii. 19. 8)</cell> <cell>10 1</cell> <cell>Ol. 123, 4 = 285/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>8.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ῷ ὰ ἐῷ</w>, new attack and treaty with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> (ii. 20. 4)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 124, 1 = 284/3</cell> </row> <milestone unit="page" n="631">[631]</milestone> <row> <cell>9.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἔ έ ὶ</w> quiet, then war between the transalpine Gauls and the Boii (ii. 21. 1)</cell> <cell>451</cell> <cell>Ol. 135, 3 = 238/7</cell> </row> <row> <cell>10.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἒ έμῳ</w> after this, colonization of Picenum (ii. 21. 7)</cell> <cell>5</cell> <cell>Ol. 136, 4 = 233/5</cell> </row> <row> <cell>11.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ἒ ὀῳ</w> after this, invasion of the Gaesatae, battle of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Telamon&groupId=1012&placeId=1781">Telamon</a> (ii. 23. 16)</cell> <cell>8</cell> <cell>Ol. 138, 4 = 225/4</cell> </row> <row> <cell>12.</cell> <cell>Campaign of Q. Fulvius and T. Manlius, coss. 224, in Cisalpine <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Gaul&groupId=598&placeId=1108">Gaul</a> (ii. 31. 8)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 1 = 224/3</cell> </row> <row> <cell>13.</cell> <cell>Campaigns of P. Furius and C. Flaminius, coss.s 223, against the Anares (ii. 32. 1)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 2 = 223/2</cell> </row> <row> <cell>14.</cell> <cell><w lang="el-GR">ῷ ᾽ ἑ ῆ ἔ</w>, campaign of Cn. Cornelius and M. Claudius, coss. 222, against the Insubres (ii. 34. 1)</cell> <cell>1</cell> <cell>Ol. 139, 3 = 222/1</cell> </row> <row> <cell /> <cell>Total</cell> <cell>166</cell> <cell /> </row> </table>

2.21.8 - 2.21.8

both Gelzer, Kl. Schr. iii. 206, and Bleicken, 29, still associate P.'s criticism of Flaminius with the events of 133; but see L. R. Taylor, JRS, 1962, 19–27, on the revolutionary trends in forebears of the Gracchi. On Flamininus see Cassola, 209–18. <emph rend="bold">24.</emph> Roman and Italian forces in 225. See on these A. J. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy (Oxford, 1965), i. 479–505.

2.18.0 - 2.35.0

for criticism of the chronology of Pdech for the Gallic wars (set out in Vol. II, addendum on pp. 631–2), and of that proposed by Werner, Der Beginn der römischen Republik (Munich, 1963), 58 ff., see R. M. Errington, JRS, 1967, 101–2, 105. See also Forni, Athen. 1953, 204 ff.

2.21.8 - 2.21.8

Z. Yavetz, Athenaeum, 1962, 325–44, argues that P.'s criticism of Flaminius arises out of his general political attitude, and does not reflect any prejudice in his source.