Polybius, Histories

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Book 3 - Chapter 6

1
<w lemma="%2A%29%2Fenioi">Ἔνιοι</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="suggegrafo%2Ftwn">συγγεγραφότων</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="kat%27">κατ᾽</w> <w lemma="%2A%29anni%2Fban">Ἀννίβαν</w> <w lemma="pra%2Fceis">πράξεις</w> <w lemma="boulo%2Fmenoi">βουλόμενοι</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="h%28mi%3Dn">ἡμῖν</w> <w lemma="u%28podeiknu%2Fnai">ὑποδεικνύναι</w>, <w lemma="di%27">δι᾽</w> <w lemma="a%28%5Cs">ἃς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fois">Ῥωμαίοις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Akarxhdoni%2Fois">Καρχηδονίοις</w> <w lemma="o%28">ὁ</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnos">προειρημένος</w> <w lemma="e%29ne%2Fsth">ἐνέστη</w> <w lemma="po%2Flemos">πόλεμος</w>, <w lemma="prw%2Fthn">πρώτην</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="a%29pofai%2Fnousi">ἀποφαίνουσι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2Azaka%2Fnqhs">Ζακάνθης</w> <w lemma="poliorki%2Fan">πολιορκίαν</w> <w lemma="u%28po%5C">ὑπὸ</w> <w lemma="%2Akarxhdoni%2Fwn">Καρχηδονίων</w>,
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<w lemma="deute%2Fran">δευτέραν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="dia%2Fbasin">διάβασιν</w> <w lemma="au%29tw%3Dn">αὐτῶν</w> <w lemma="para%5C">παρὰ</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="sunqh%2Fkas">συνθήκας</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="prosagoreuome%2Fnou">προσαγορευομένου</w> <w lemma="para%5C">παρὰ</w> <w lemma="toi%3Ds">τοῖς</w> <w lemma="e%29gxwri%2Fois">ἐγχωρίοις</w> <w lemma="%2A%29%2Fibhros">Ἴβηρος</w> <w lemma="potamou%3D:">ποταμοῦ·</w>
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<w lemma="e%29gw%5C">ἐγὼ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tau%2Ftas">ταύτας</w> <w lemma="a%29rxa%5Cs">ἀρχὰς</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ei%29%3Dnai">εἶναι</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmou">πολέμου</w> <w lemma="fh%2Fsaim%27">φήσαιμ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fn">ἄν</w>, <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="ge">γε</w> <w lemma="mh%5Cn">μὴν</w> <w lemma="ou%29damw%3Ds">οὐδαμῶς</w> <w lemma="a%29%5Cn">ἂν</w> <w lemma="sugxwrh%2Fsaimi">συγχωρήσαιμι</w>. <w lemma="pollou%3D">πολλοῦ</w> <w lemma="ge">γε</w> <w lemma="dei%3Dn">δεῖν</w>,
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<w lemma="ei%29">εἰ</w> <w lemma="mh%5C">μὴ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29aleca%2Fndrou">Ἀλεξάνδρου</w> <w lemma="dia%2Fbasin">διάβασιν</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29asi%2Fan">Ἀσίαν</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fan">αἰτίαν</w> <w lemma="ei%29%3Dnai%2F">εἶναί</w> <w lemma="tis">τις</w> <w lemma="fh%2Fsei">φήσει</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2Ape%2Frsas">Πέρσας</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmou">πολέμου</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29antio%2Fxou">Ἀντιόχου</w> <w lemma="kata%2Fploun">κατάπλουν</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="%2Adhmhtria%2Fda">Δημητριάδα</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fous:">Ῥωμαίους·</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="ou%29%2Ft%27">οὔτ᾽</w> <w lemma="ei%29ko%5Cs">εἰκὸς</w> <w lemma="ou%29%2Ft%27">οὔτ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29lhqe%2Fs">ἀληθές</w> <w lemma="e%29stin">ἐστιν</w> <w lemma="ou%29de%2Fteron">οὐδέτερον</w>.
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<w lemma="ti%2Fs">τίς</w> <w lemma="ga%5Cr">γὰρ</w> <w lemma="a%29%5Cn">ἂν</w> <w lemma="nomi%2Fseie">νομίσειε</w> <w lemma="tau%2Ftas">ταύτας</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="u%28pa%2Frxein">ὑπάρχειν</w>, <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="polla%5C">πολλὰ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29ale%2Fcandros">Ἀλέξανδρος</w> <w lemma="pro%2Fteron">πρότερον</w>, <w lemma="ou%29k">οὐκ</w> <w lemma="o%29li%2Fga">ὀλίγα</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="%2Afi%2Flippos">Φίλιππος</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fti">ἔτι</w> <w lemma="zw%3Dn">ζῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29nh%2Frghse">ἐνήργησε</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pareskeua%2Fsato">παρεσκευάσατο</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="kata%5C">κατὰ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2Apersw%3Dn">Περσῶν</w> <w lemma="po%2Flemon">πόλεμον</w>, <w lemma="o%28moi%2Fws">ὁμοίως</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Flin">πάλιν</w> <w lemma="%2Aai%29twloi%5C">Αἰτωλοὶ</w> <w lemma="pro%5C">πρὸ</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="%2A%29antio%2Fxou">Ἀντιόχου</w> <w lemma="parousi%2Fas">παρουσίας</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="kata%5C">κατὰ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fwn">Ῥωμαίων</w>;
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<w lemma="a%29ll%27">ἀλλ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fstin">ἔστιν</w> <w lemma="a%29nqrw%2Fpwn">ἀνθρώπων</w> <w lemma="ta%5C">τὰ</w> <w lemma="toiau%3Dta">τοιαῦτα</w> <w lemma="mh%5C">μὴ</w> <w lemma="dieilhfo%2Ftwn">διειληφότων</w> <w lemma="a%29rxh%5C">ἀρχὴ</w> <w lemma="ti%2F">τί</w> <w lemma="diafe%2Frei">διαφέρει</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="po%2Fson">πόσον</w> <w lemma="die%2Fsthken">διέστηκεν</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="profa%2Fsews">προφάσεως</w>, <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="dio%2Fti">διότι</w> <w lemma="ta%5C">τὰ</w> <w lemma="me%2Fn">μέν</w> <w lemma="e%29sti">ἐστι</w> <w lemma="prw%3Dta">πρῶτα</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="a%28pa%2Fntwn">ἁπάντων</w>, <w lemma="h%28">ἡ</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29rxh%5C">ἀρχὴ</w> <w lemma="teleutai%3Don">τελευταῖον</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="ei%29rhme%2Fnwn">εἰρημένων</w>.
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<w lemma="e%29gw%5C">ἐγὼ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="panto%5Cs">παντὸς</w> <w lemma="a%29rxa%5Cs">ἀρχὰς</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ei%29%3Dnai%2F">εἶναί</w> <w lemma="fhmi">φημι</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="prw%2Ftas">πρώτας</w> <w lemma="e%29pibola%5Cs">ἐπιβολὰς</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pra%2Fceis">πράξεις</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="h%29%2Fdh">ἤδη</w> <w lemma="kekrime%2Fnwn">κεκριμένων</w>, <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="prokaqhgoume%2Fnas">προκαθηγουμένας</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="kri%2Fsewn">κρίσεων</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="dialh%2Fyewn:">διαλήψεων·</w> <w lemma="le%2Fgw">λέγω</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29pinoi%2Fas">ἐπινοίας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="diaqe%2Fseis">διαθέσεις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="peri%5C">περὶ</w> <w lemma="tau%3Dta">ταῦτα</w> <w lemma="sullogismou%5Cs">συλλογισμοὺς</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="di%27">δι᾽</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn:">ὧν·</w> <w lemma="e%29pi%5C">ἐπὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="kri%3Dnai%2F">κρῖναί</w> <w lemma="ti">τι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="proqe%2Fsqai">προθέσθαι</w> <w lemma="paragino%2Fmeqa">παραγινόμεθα</w>.
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<w lemma="dh%3Dlon">δῆλον</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="oi%28%3Don">οἷον</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnon">προειρημένον</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29piferome%2Fnwn">ἐπιφερομένων</w>.
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<w lemma="ti%2Fnes">τίνες</w> <w lemma="ga%5Cr">γὰρ</w> <w lemma="a%29lhqw%3Ds">ἀληθῶς</w> <w lemma="h%29%3Dsan">ἦσαν</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fai">αἰτίαι</w>, <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="po%2Fqen">πόθεν</w> <w lemma="fu%3Dnai">φῦναι</w> <w lemma="sune%2Fbh">συνέβη</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2Ape%2Frsas">Πέρσας</w> <w lemma="po%2Flemon">πόλεμον</w>, <w lemma="eu%29mare%5Cs">εὐμαρὲς</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tw%3D%7C">τῷ</w> <w lemma="tuxo%2Fnti">τυχόντι</w> <w lemma="sunidei%3Dn">συνιδεῖν</w>.
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<w lemma="h%29%3Dn">ἦν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="prw%2Fth">πρώτη</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="h%28">ἡ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="%2Acenofw%3Dntos">Ξενοφῶντος</w> <w lemma="%2A%28ellh%2Fnwn">Ἑλλήνων</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fnw">ἄνω</w> <w lemma="satrapeiw%3Dn">σατραπειῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29pa%2Fnodos">ἐπάνοδος</w>, <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="h%28%3D%7C">ᾗ</w> <w lemma="pa%3Dsan">πᾶσαν</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29asi%2Fan">Ἀσίαν</w> <w lemma="diaporeuome%2Fnwn">διαπορευομένων</w> <w lemma="au%29tw%3Dn">αὐτῶν</w> <w lemma="polemi%2Fan">πολεμίαν</w> <w lemma="u%28pa%2Frxousan">ὑπάρχουσαν</w> <w lemma="ou%29dei%5Cs">οὐδεὶς</w> <w lemma="e%29to%2Flma">ἐτόλμα</w> <w lemma="me%2Fnein">μένειν</w> <w lemma="kata%5C">κατὰ</w> <w lemma="pro%2Fswpon">πρόσωπον</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="barba%2Frwn:">βαρβάρων·</w>
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<w lemma="deute%2Fra">δευτέρα</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="h%28">ἡ</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="%2Alakedaimoni%2Fwn">Λακεδαιμονίων</w> <w lemma="basile%2Fws">βασιλέως</w> <w lemma="%2A%29aghsila%2Fou">Ἀγησιλάου</w> <w lemma="dia%2Fbasis">διάβασις</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29asi%2Fan">Ἀσίαν</w>, <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="h%28%3D%7C">ᾗ</w> '<w lemma="kei%3Dnos">κεῖνος</w> <w lemma="ou%29de%5Cn">οὐδὲν</w> <w lemma="a%29cio%2Fxrewn">ἀξιόχρεων</w> <w lemma="ou%29d%27">οὐδ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29nti%2Fpalon">ἀντίπαλον</w> <w lemma="eu%28rw%5Cn">εὑρὼν</w> <w lemma="tai%3Ds">ταῖς</w> <w lemma="sfete%2Frais">σφετέραις</w> <w lemma="e%29pibolai%3Ds">ἐπιβολαῖς</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fpraktos">ἄπρακτος</w> <w lemma="h%29nagka%2Fsqh">ἠναγκάσθη</w> <w lemma="metacu%5C">μεταξὺ</w> <w lemma="dia%5C">διὰ</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="peri%5C">περὶ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28ella%2Fda">Ἑλλάδα</w> <w lemma="taraxa%5Cs">ταραχὰς</w> <w lemma="e%29panelqei%3Dn">ἐπανελθεῖν</w>.
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<w lemma="e%29c">ἐξ</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="%2Afi%2Flippos">Φίλιππος</w> <w lemma="katanoh%2Fsas">κατανοήσας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="sullogisa%2Fmenos">συλλογισάμενος</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2Apersw%3Dn">Περσῶν</w> <w lemma="a%29nandri%2Fan">ἀνανδρίαν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="r%28a%7Cqumi%2Fan">ῥᾳθυμίαν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="au%28tou%3D">αὑτοῦ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Amakedo%2Fnwn">Μακεδόνων</w> <w lemma="eu%29eci%2Fan">εὐεξίαν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="toi%3Ds">τοῖς</w> <w lemma="polemikoi%3Ds">πολεμικοῖς</w>, <w lemma="e%29%2Fti">ἔτι</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="me%2Fgeqos">μέγεθος</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="ka%2Fllos">κάλλος</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29some%2Fnwn">ἐσομένων</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fqlwn">ἄθλων</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmou">πολέμου</w> <w lemma="pro%5C">πρὸ</w> <w lemma="o%29fqalmw%3Dn">ὀφθαλμῶν</w> <w lemma="qe%2Fmenos">θέμενος</w>,
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<w lemma="a%28%2Fma">ἅμα</w> <w lemma="tw%3D%7C">τῷ</w> <w lemma="peripoih%2Fsasqai">περιποιήσασθαι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28ellh%2Fnwn">Ἑλλήνων</w> <w lemma="eu%29%2Fnoian">εὔνοιαν</w> <w lemma="o%28mologoume%2Fnhn">ὁμολογουμένην</w>, <w lemma="eu%29qe%2Fws">εὐθέως</w> <w lemma="profa%2Fsei">προφάσει</w> <w lemma="xrw%2Fmenos">χρώμενος</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Fti">ὅτι</w> <w lemma="speu%2Fdei">σπεύδει</w> <w lemma="metelqei%3Dn">μετελθεῖν</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2Apersw%3Dn">Περσῶν</w> <w lemma="paranomi%2Fan">παρανομίαν</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28%2Fellhnas">Ἕλληνας</w>, <w lemma="o%28rmh%5Cn">ὁρμὴν</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fsxe">ἔσχε</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="proe%2Fqeto">προέθετο</w> <w lemma="polemei%3Dn">πολεμεῖν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Fnta">πάντα</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%3Dto">τοῦτο</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="me%2Fros">μέρος</w> <w lemma="h%28toi%2Fmaze">ἡτοίμαζε</w>.
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<w lemma="dio%2Fper">διόπερ</w> <w lemma="ai%29ti%2Fas">αἰτίας</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="prw%2Ftas">πρώτας</w> <w lemma="r%28hqei%2Fsas">ῥηθείσας</w> <w lemma="h%28ghte%2Fon">ἡγητέον</w> <w lemma="tou%3D">τοῦ</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2Ape%2Frsas">Πέρσας</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmou">πολέμου</w>, <w lemma="pro%2Ffasin">πρόφασιν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="deute%2Fran">δευτέραν</w>, <w lemma="a%29rxh%5Cn">ἀρχὴν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w>
<head>Causes of the Second Punic War</head>Some historians of the Hannibalian war, when they wish<note anchored="yes" place="marg" id="note16">The origin of the 2d Punic war;</note>to point out to us the causes of this contest between <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> and <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Carthage&groupId=441&placeId=820">Carthage</a>, allege first the siege of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Saguntum&groupId=938&placeId=1673">Saguntum</a> by the Carthaginians, and, secondly, their breach of treaty by crossing the river called by the natives the Iber.<note anchored="yes" place="marg" id="note17">B. C. 334.</note>But though I should call these the first actions in the war, I cannot admit them to be its causes. One might just as well say that the crossing of Alexander the Great into Asia was the<emph>cause</emph>of the Persian war, and the descent of Antiochus upon <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Demetrias&groupId=536&placeId=1006">Demetrias</a> the<emph>cause</emph>of his war with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>.<note anchored="yes" place="marg" id="note18">B. C. 192,</note>In neither would it be a probable or ture statement. In the first case, this action of Alexander's could not be called the cause of a war, for which both he and his father Philip in his lifetime had made elaborate preparations: and in the second case, we know that the Aetolian league had done the same, with a view to a war with <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, before Antiochus came upon the scene. Such definitions are only worthy of men who cannot distinguish between a first overt act and a cause or pretext; and who do not perceive that a<emph>cause</emph>is the first in a series of events of which such an overt act is the last. I shall therefore regard the first attempt to put into execution what had already been determined as a "beginning," but I shall look for "causes" in the motives which suggested such action and the policy which dictated it; for it is by these, and the calculations to which they give rise, that men are led to decide upon a particular line of conduct. The Soundness of this method will be proved by the following considerations. The true causes and origin of the invasion of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Persia&groupId=871&placeId=1571">Persia</a> by Alexander are patent to everybody.<note anchored="yes" place="marg" id="note19">B. C. 401-400,</note><note anchored="yes" place="marg" id="note20">B. C. 396-394</note>They were, first, the return march of the Greeks under Xenophon through the country from the upper Satrapies; in the course of which, though throughout Asia all the populations were hostile, not a single barbarian ventured to face them: secondly, the invasion of Asia by the Spartan king Agesilaus, in which, though he was obliged by troubles in Greece to return in the middle of his<pb n="172" />expedition without effecting his object, he yet found no resistance of any importance or adequacy. It was these circumstances which convinced Philip of the cowardice and inefficiency of the Persians; and comparing them with his own high state of efficiency for war, and that of his Macedonian subjects, and placing before his eyes the splendour of the rewards to be gained by such a war, and the popularity which it would bring him in Greece, he seized on the pretext of avenging the injuries done by <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Persia&groupId=871&placeId=1571">Persia</a> to Greece, and determined with great eagerness to undertake this war; and was in fact at the time of his death engaged in making every kind of preparation for it.Here we have the<emph>cause</emph>and the<emph>pretext</emph>of the Persian war. Alexander's expedition into Asia was the<emph>first action</emph>in it.