Polybius, Histories

Translation

Book 1 - Chapter 63

<w lemma="tou%2Ftwn">τούτων</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29panenexqe%2Fntwn">ἐπανενεχθέντων</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rw%2Fmhn">Ῥώμην</w>, <w lemma="ou%29">οὐ</w> <w lemma="prosede%2Fcato">προσεδέξατο</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="sunqh%2Fkas">συνθήκας</w> <w lemma="o%28">ὁ</w> <w lemma="dh%3Dmos">δῆμος</w>. <w lemma="a%29ll%27">ἀλλ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29cape%2Fsteilen">ἐξαπέστειλεν</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Fndras">ἄνδρας</w> <w lemma="de%2Fka">δέκα</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="e%29piskeyome%2Fnous">ἐπισκεψομένους</w> <w lemma="u%28pe%5Cr">ὑπὲρ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="pragma%2Ftwn">πραγμάτων</w>.

<w lemma="oi%28%5C">οἳ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="parageno%2Fmenoi">παραγενόμενοι</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Flwn">ὅλων</w> <w lemma="ou%29de%5Cn">οὐδὲν</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fti">ἔτι</w> <w lemma="mete%2Fqhkan">μετέθηκαν</w>, <w lemma="braxe%2Fa">βραχέα</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="prosepe%2Fteinan">προσεπέτειναν</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2Akarxhdoni%2Fous">Καρχηδονίους</w>.

<w lemma="to%2Fn">τόν</w> <w lemma="te">τε</w> <w lemma="ga%5Cr">γὰρ</w> <w lemma="xro%2Fnon">χρόνον</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="fo%2Frwn">φόρων</w> <w lemma="e%29poi%2Fhsan">ἐποίησαν</w> <w lemma="h%28%2Fmisun">ἥμισυν</w>, <w lemma="xi%2Flia">χίλια</w> <w lemma="ta%2Flanta">τάλαντα</w> <w lemma="prosqe%2Fntes">προσθέντες</w>, <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="te">τε</w> <w lemma="nh%2Fswn">νήσων</w> <w lemma="e%29kxwrei%3Dn">ἐκχωρεῖν</w> <w lemma="%2Akarxhdoni%2Fous">Καρχηδονίους</w> <w lemma="prosepe%2Ftacan">προσεπέταξαν</w>, <w lemma="o%28%2Fsai">ὅσαι</w> <w lemma="metacu%5C">μεταξὺ</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="%2A%29itali%2Fas">Ἰταλίας</w> <w lemma="kei%3Dntai">κεῖνται</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="%2Asikeli%2Fas">Σικελίας</w>.

<w lemma=""></w> <w lemma="%2A%28o">Ὁ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="ou%29%3Dn">οὖν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fois">Ῥωμαίοις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Akarxhdoni%2Fois">Καρχηδονίοις</w> <w lemma="susta%5Cs">συστὰς</w> <w lemma="peri%5C">περὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Asikeli%2Fas">Σικελίας</w> <w lemma="po%2Flemos">πόλεμος</w> <w lemma="e%29pi%5C">ἐπὶ</w> <w lemma="toiou%2Ftois">τοιούτοις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="toiou%3Dton">τοιοῦτον</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fsxe">ἔσχε</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="te%2Flos">τέλος</w>, <w lemma="e%29%2Fth">ἔτη</w> <w lemma="polemhqei%5Cs">πολεμηθεὶς</w> <w lemma="ei%29%2Fkosi">εἴκοσι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="te%2Fttara">τέτταρα</w> <w lemma="sunexw%3Ds">συνεχῶς</w>, <w lemma="po%2Flemos">πόλεμος</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="h%28mei%3Ds">ἡμεῖς</w> <w lemma="i%29%2Fsmen">ἴσμεν</w> <w lemma="a%29koh%3D%7C">ἀκοῇ</w> <w lemma="maqo%2Fntes">μαθόντες</w> <w lemma="poluxroniw%2Ftatos">πολυχρονιώτατος</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="sunexe%2Fstatos">συνεχέστατος</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="me%2Fgistos">μέγιστος</w>.

<w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="w%28%3D%7C">ᾧ</w> <w lemma="xwri%5Cs">χωρὶς</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="loipw%3Dn">λοιπῶν</w> <w lemma="a%29gw%2Fnwn">ἀγώνων</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="paraskeuw%3Dn">παρασκευῶν</w>, <w lemma="kaqa%2Fper">καθάπερ</w> <w lemma="ei%29%2Fpomen">εἴπομεν</w> <w lemma="a%29nw%2Fteron">ἀνώτερον</w>, <w lemma="a%28%2Fpac">ἅπαξ</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="suna%2Fmfw">συνάμφω</w> <w lemma="plei%2Fosin">πλείοσιν</w> <w lemma="h%29%5C">ἢ</w> <w lemma="pentakosi%2Fois">πεντακοσίοις</w>, <w lemma="pa%2Flin">πάλιν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="mikrw%3D%7C">μικρῷ</w> <w lemma="lei%2Fpousin">λείπουσιν</w> <w lemma="e%28ptakosi%2Fois">ἑπτακοσίοις</w> <w lemma="ska%2Ffesi">σκάφεσι</w> <w lemma="penthrikoi%3Ds">πεντηρικοῖς</w> <w lemma="e%29nauma%2Fxhsan">ἐναυμάχησαν</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="a%29llh%2Flous">ἀλλήλους</w>.

<w lemma="a%29pe%2Fbalo%2Fn">ἀπέβαλόν</w> <w lemma="ge">γε</w> <w lemma="mh%5Cn">μὴν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%3Doi">Ῥωμαῖοι</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="tw%3D%7C">τῷ</w> <w lemma="pole%2Fmw%7C">πολέμῳ</w> <w lemma="tou%2Ftw%7C">τούτῳ</w> <w lemma="penth%2Freis">πεντήρεις</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="tai%3Ds">ταῖς</w> <w lemma="nauagi%2Fais">ναυαγίαις</w> <w lemma="diafqareisw%3Dn">διαφθαρεισῶν</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="e%28ptakosi%2Fas">ἑπτακοσίας</w>, <w lemma="%2Akarxhdo%2Fnioi">Καρχηδόνιοι</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="pentakosi%2Fas">πεντακοσίας</w>.

<w lemma="w%28%2Fste">ὥστε</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="qauma%2Fzontas">θαυμάζοντας</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="%2A%29antigo%2Fnou">Ἀντιγόνου</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Aptolemai%2Fou">Πτολεμαίου</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Adhmhtri%2Fou">Δημητρίου</w> <w lemma="naumaxi%2Fas">ναυμαχίας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="sto%2Flous">στόλους</w> <w lemma="ei%29ko%2Ftws">εἰκότως</w> <w lemma="a%29%5Cn">ἂν</w> <w lemma="peri%5C">περὶ</w> <w lemma="tou%2Ftwn">τούτων</w> <w lemma="i%28storh%2Fsantas">ἱστορήσαντας</w> <w lemma="e%29kpeplh%3Dxqai">ἐκπεπλῆχθαι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="u%28perbolh%5Cn">ὑπερβολὴν</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="pra%2Fcewn">πράξεων</w>.

<w lemma="ei%29">εἰ</w> <w lemma="de%2F">δέ</w> <w lemma="tis">τις</w> <w lemma="boulhqei%2Fh">βουληθείη</w> <w lemma="sullogi%2Fsasqai">συλλογίσασθαι</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="diafora%5Cn">διαφορὰν</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="penthrikw%3Dn">πεντηρικῶν</w> <w lemma="ploi%2Fwn">πλοίων</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="trih%2Freis">τριήρεις</w>, <w lemma="ai%28%3Ds">αἷς</w> <w lemma="oi%28%2F">οἵ</w> <w lemma="te">τε</w> <w lemma="%2Ape%2Frsai">Πέρσαι</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="%2A%28%2Fellhnas">Ἕλληνας</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Flin">πάλιν</w> <w lemma="%2A%29aqhnai%3Doi">Ἀθηναῖοι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="%2Alakedaimo%2Fnioi">Λακεδαιμόνιοι</w> <w lemma="pro%5Cs">πρὸς</w> <w lemma="a%29llh%2Flous">ἀλλήλους</w> <w lemma="e%29nauma%2Fxoun">ἐναυμάχουν</w>, <w lemma="ou%29d%27">οὐδ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29%5Cn">ἂν</w> <w lemma="kaqo%2Flou">καθόλου</w> <w lemma="dunhqei%2Fh">δυνηθείη</w> <w lemma="thlikau%2Ftas">τηλικαύτας</w> <w lemma="duna%2Fmeis">δυνάμεις</w> <w lemma="eu%28rei%3Dn">εὑρεῖν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="qala%2Ftth%7C">θαλάττῃ</w> <w lemma="dihgwnisme%2Fnas">διηγωνισμένας</w>.

<w lemma="e%29c">ἐξ</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="dh%3Dlon">δῆλον</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="proteqe%5Cn">προτεθὲν</w> <w lemma="h%28mi%3Dn">ἡμῖν</w> <w lemma="e%29c">ἐξ</w> <w lemma="a%29rxh%3Ds">ἀρχῆς</w> <w lemma="w%28s">ὡς</w> <w lemma="ou%29">οὐ</w> <w lemma="tu%2Fxh%7C">τύχῃ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%3Doi">Ῥωμαῖοι</w>, <w lemma="kaqa%2Fper">καθάπερ</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fnioi">ἔνιοι</w> <w lemma="dokou%3Dsi">δοκοῦσι</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="%2A%28ellh%2Fnwn">Ἑλλήνων</w>, <w lemma="ou%29d%27">οὐδ᾽</w> <w lemma="au%29toma%2Ftws">αὐτομάτως</w>, <w lemma="a%29lla%5C">ἀλλὰ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="li%2Fan">λίαν</w> <w lemma="ei%29ko%2Ftws">εἰκότως</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="toiou%2Ftois">τοιούτοις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="thlikou%2Ftois">τηλικούτοις</w> <w lemma="pra%2Fgmasin">πράγμασιν</w> <w lemma="e%29naskh%2Fsantes">ἐνασκήσαντες</w> <w lemma="ou%29">οὐ</w> <w lemma="mo%2Fnon">μόνον</w> <w lemma="e%29peba%2Flonto">ἐπεβάλοντο</w> <w lemma="th%3D%7C">τῇ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Flwn">ὅλων</w> <w lemma="h%28gemoni%2Fa%7C">ἡγεμονίᾳ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="dunastei%2Fa%7C">δυναστείᾳ</w> <w lemma="tolmhrw%3Ds">τολμηρῶς</w>, <w lemma="a%29lla%5C">ἀλλὰ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w>

But when these terms were referred to <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, the people did not accept the treaty, but sent ten commissioners to examine the matter.

On their arrival they made no substantial changes in the terms, but only slight modifications rendering them more severe for <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Carthage&groupId=441&placeId=820">Carthage</a>:

for they reduced the term of payment by one half, added a thousand talents to the indemnity, and demanded the evacuation by the Carthaginians of all islands lying between <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Sicily&groupId=973&placeId=1724">Sicily</a> and <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Italy&groupId=656&placeId=1199">Italy</a>.

then was the end of the war between the Romans and Carthaginians for the possession of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Sicily&groupId=973&placeId=1724">Sicily</a>, and such were the terms of peace. It had lasted without a break for twenty-four years and is the longest,

most unintermittent, and greatest war we know of. Apart from all the other battles and armaments, the total naval forces engaged were, as I mentioned above, on one occasion more than five hundred quinqueremes and on a subsequent one very nearly seven hundred.

Moreover the Romans lost in this war about seven hundred quinqueremes, inclusive of those that perished in the shipwrecks, and the Carthaginians about five hundred.

So that those who marvel at the great sea-battles and great fleets of an Antigonus, a Ptolemy, or a Demetrius would, if I mistake not, on inquiring into the history of this war, be much astonished at the huge scale of operations.

Again, if we take into consideration the difference between quinqueremes and the triremes in which the Persians fought against the Greeks and the Athenians and Lacedaemonians against each other, we shall find that no forces of such magnitude ever met at sea.

This confirms the assertion I ventured to make at the outset that the progress of the Romans was not due to chance and was not involuntary, as some among the Greeks choose to think, but that by schooling themselves in such vast and perilous enterprises it was perfectly natural that they not only gained the courage to aim at universal dominion, but executed their purpose.

Walbank Commentary

Overview

1.12.0 - 1.64.0

The First Punic War

1.63.4 - 1.64.6

Summary on the First Punic War. P. takes up and develops two of the points made in 13. 10–12, (a) The magnitude of the war (13. 11): discussion in 63. 4–9, ending with P.'s conclusions about the forces directing Roman success. (This point may have been in Philinus; Klotz (Hermes, 1952, 326) observes that P.'s superlatives perhaps neglect the Hannibalic War, which was admittedly <milestone unit="page" n="127">[127]</milestone> shorter, but no less in scope and significance.) (b) The light thrown on the special characteristics of the two powers (13. 12): the moral aspects are discussed (64. 5–6), and also the political institutions of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, which will be treated below (book vi). Thus P. stresses both the moral and the political virtues of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> at the outset (contra Kornemann, Phil., 1931, 175; cf. CQ, 1943, 81). The reference back is underlined by the phrase <w lang="el-GR">ὁ . . . Ῥωμαίοις καὶ Καρχηδονίοις συστὰς περὶ Σικελίας πόλεμος</w> : cf. 13. 10; at what stage it became a war 'for <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Sicily&groupId=973&placeId=1724">Sicily</a>' is indicated in 20. 2.

1.63.5 - 1.63.5

Numbers engaged. According to P.'s figures there were 250 ships at Mylae (20. 9, 23. 3), 680 at Ecnomus (25. 7–9), and 550 at Hermaea (36. 9–10); the numbers at <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Drepana&groupId=544&placeId=1023">Drepana</a> and Tyndaris are not recorded, nor the total at the Aegates Islands, where the Romans had 200 ships (59. 8). The two battles are therefore Hermaea and Ecnomus; and <w lang="el-GR">ἅπαξ μὲν . . . πάλιν δέ</w> must be 'on one occasion . . . on another' (so Shuckburgh: Paton translates <w lang="el-GR">πάλιν δέ</w> 'and on a subsequent one'). For P.'s analysis of naval strength see 20. 8. Losses on either side. The Punic total is reached thus: Hannibal's first battle (21. 11), say 30; Mylae (23. 10), 50; <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Sardinia&groupId=947&placeId=1685">Sardinia</a> (24. 6) <w lang="el-GR">πολλάς</w>, say 20–40; Tyndaris (25. 4), 18; Ecnomus (28. 14), 94+; Hermaea (36. 11), 114+; Aegates Islands (61. 6), 120: Total: 446+ (probably 470–90). The Roman figures are: <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Lipara&groupId=692&placeId=1266">Lipara</a> (21. 4), 17; Tyndaris (25. 1–3), 9; Ecnomus (28. 14), 24; first wreck off Camarina (37. 2), 284; Palinurus (39. 6), 150+; <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Drepana&groupId=544&placeId=1023">Drepana</a> (51. 12), 93+; <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Lilybaeum&groupId=690&placeId=1261">Lilybaeum</a> (53. 7), <w lang="el-GR">ὀλίγα</w>; second wreck off Camarina (52. 6, 54. 8), 120: Total, 697 +. Tarn (JHS, 1907, 58–59) reduces the Roman losses to c. 470, which, by adding say 10 for Mylae and an unknown figure for the Aegates Islands, he brings up to about 500. These calculations involve reducing the losses off Camarina in the first wreck to 170+, since of the total of 364 some 114 were prizes, and not all these will have gone down. But Tarn's figures for Palinurus (27 instead of 150) are not acceptable (39. 6 n.); here P. is to be preferred. Hence the only change which has to be made in calculating the total is in connexion with the first wreck off Camarina; and this makes the total Roman (real) losses about 600 (cf. Thiel, Hist. 94). De Sanctis (iii. 1. 190 n. 98) makes the Roman total 683+, apparently by raising the losses at Camarina (first wreck) to 384, and then subtracting the 114 prizes, thus making the loss 270. Beloch (iv. 1. 363 n. 3) thinks both Roman and Punic totals are from Fabius and much exaggerated; but they seem to be calculated by P. himself for the figures in his own text. <milestone unit="page" n="128">[128]</milestone>

Specifics

1.63.1 - 1.63.1

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οὐ προσεδέξατο τὰς συνθήκας ὁ δῆμος</w>:</emph> this is no doubt based on Fabius and links with his thesis (10. 3 n., 11. 1) of popular greed deciding the issue of helping the Mamertini; cf. Gelzer, Hermes, 1933, 142. If in fact the commission of ten was sent by the people (as Mommsen argues, St.-R. ii. 643, 692; contra Tubler, Vorgesch. 109), its composition shows that there was no break with the nobility, for it was led by Q. Lutatius C.f. C.n. Cerco, consul for A.U.C. 513 = 241/0 B.C., and brother of Lutatius Catulus: Zon. viii. 17; Val. Max. i. 3. 2 (Mnzer, RE, 'Lutatius (13)', col. 2095). Our sources offer no support for either E. Meyer's theory (Kl. Schr. ii. 380) that the word <w lang="el-GR">δῆμος</w> here cloaks the activities of the equites (cf. 11. 2 n.), or De Sanctis's assumption (iii. 1. 190) that the people voted to continue the war, and that the Commission was sent out by the Senate as a wise compromise.

1.63.2 - 1.63.3

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">βραχέα δὲ προσεπέτειναν κτλ</w>.:</emph> see iii. 27. 2–6 n. for the revised treaty.

1.63.4 - 1.63.4

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἔτη . . . εἴκοσι καὶ τέτταρα συνεχῶς</w>:</emph> from late summer 264 to 241, i.e. 23 years and a few months, 5. 1–5 n. This figure is confirmed by Zon. viii. 17; Eutrop. iii. 1; Oros. iv. 11. 4. De Sanctis, iii. 1. 251–2.

1.63.7 - 1.63.7

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">Ἀντιγόνου καὶ Πτολεμαίου καὶ</w> D<w lang="el-GR">ημητρίου</w>:</emph> e.g. Salamis (306), where Demetrius Poliorcetes defeated Ptolemy I, Cos, Andros, and Ephesus (Egyptian defeats: all three dates uncertain: see A. Momigliano and P. Fraser, CQ, 1950, 107–18; E. Manni, Athen., 1952, 182 ff.; Treves, Euforione, 75–83, 124–8 (with notes)). <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">περὶ τούτων ἱστορήσαντας</w>:</emph> 'if they were to read the account of this war' (Strachan-Davidson: cf. Schweighaeuser; for this sense of <w lang="el-GR">ἱστορεῖν</w> cf. ii. 62. 6, xii. 3. 5; perhaps ii. 17. 2); 'if they had to tell the story of this war' (cf. 13. 7) (Shuckburgh). But the latter interpretation involves taking <w lang="el-GR">τοὺς θαυμάζοντας</w> as historians; whereas it is clearly with readers of history that P. is concerned. Paton's translation is satisfactory, 'if they inquired into the history of this war'.

1.63.8 - 1.63.8

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οὐδ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">ἂν . . . δυνηθείη . . . εὑρεῖν</w>:</emph> for the claim cf. 2 nn. Indirectly P. is here challenging comparison with Herodotus and Thucydides. On the change from trireme to quinquereme see Tarn, HMND, 122 ff.

1.63.9 - 1.63.9

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τὸ προτεθὲν ἡμῖν ἐξ ἀρχῆς</w>:</emph> in 3. 9–10 P. undertook to explain the grounds <w lang="el-GR">(ἀφορμαί)</w> which led the Romans to conceive the ambition of a world-empire, and gave them the means to acquire it. The First Punic War, and especially Roman naval policy, provide the answer. Not by chance, nor by purely fortuitous circumstances <w lang="el-GR">(τύχη</w> and <w lang="el-GR">ταὐτόματον</w> are virtually synonymous: cf. x. 2. 5, xv. 16. 6, xxi. 26. 16, xxxi. 30. 3, and other passages quoted in Siegfried, 60–66; Susemihl, ii. 101 n. 79 compares Arist. Phys. ii. 4–6), but by deliberately schooling themselves amid dangers, the Romans conceived their ambition <w lang="el-GR">(ἐπεβά?λοντο . . . τολμηρῶς)</w> and accomplished it <w lang="el-GR">(καθίκοντο τῆς προθέσεως)</w>. Thus this passage was clearly written in close relationship to 3. 7–10, part of the introduction to books i and ii (cf. Shorey, CP, 1921, 282). von Scala (182), Susemihl (ii. 110 n. 104), and Cuntz (46) have argued that it represents a later stage in P.'s thought, when he has modified or rejected his belief in the power of Fortune (cf. ii. 38. 5). The assumption is unnecessary and unconvincing. P.'s concept of Tyche varies from one part of his work to another; but even so positive a concept as that of 4. 4 is complementary to a belief in causation, and not exclusive of it. In the case of the Roman Empire P. was faced with a dilemma, and the present passage is his solution. The rise of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> to world dominion was the act of Tyche (4. 1 ff.); yet if it was that and nothing more, P.'s history had no lesson to teach. The answer to this aporia is that Fortune favoured the Romans because they were worthy. It was the <w lang="el-GR">ἀφορμαί</w> as analysed in the First Punic War which marked them out to become the protgs of Fortune, so that the rise of <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a> to world power defined itself as the main-stream of history and the will of Providence. It was no doubt from a similar passage in book vi, now lost, that Cicero borrowed the statement (de re pub. ii. 30) that 'non fortuito <milestone unit="page" n="129">[129]</milestone> populum Romanum, sed consilio et disciplina confirmatum esse nec tamen aduersante fortuna' (where non fortuito does not exclude the positive aid of fortuna, just as here <w lang="el-GR">οὐ τύχῃ</w> does not exclude the guidance of 4. 1 ff.). See above, pp. 21–22. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">καθάπερ ἔνιοι δοκοῦσι τῶν Ἑλλήνων</w>:</emph> who they are is uncertain. P. may be thinking of some of the unidentified writers on the Roman constitution, attacked in 64. 3–4 (if these were Greeks); or he may simply be referring to orally expressed opinions.

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