Polybius, Histories

Translation

Book 6 - Chapter 21

<w lemma="%2A%29epitelesqei%2Fshs">Ἐπιτελεσθείσης</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="katagrafh%3Ds">καταγραφῆς</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnon">προειρημένον</w> <w lemma="tro%2Fpon">τρόπον</w>, <w lemma="a%28qroi%2Fsantes">ἁθροίσαντες</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="e%29peilegme%2Fnous">ἐπειλεγμένους</w> <w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="prosh%2Fkontes">προσήκοντες</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="xilia%2Frxwn">χιλιάρχων</w> <w lemma="kaq%27">καθ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%28%2Fkaston">ἕκαστον</w> <w lemma="strato%2Fpedon">στρατόπεδον</w>, <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="labo%2Fntes">λαβόντες</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Fntwn">πάντων</w> <w lemma="e%28%2Fna">ἕνα</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="e%29pithdeio%2Ftaton">ἐπιτηδειότατον</w>,

<w lemma="e%29corki%2Fzousin">ἐξορκίζουσιν</w> <w lemma="h%29%3D">ἦ</w> <w lemma="mh%5Cn">μὴν</w> <w lemma="peiqarxh%2Fsein">πειθαρχήσειν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="poih%2Fsein">ποιήσειν</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="prostatto%2Fmenon">προσταττόμενον</w> <w lemma="u%28po%5C">ὑπὸ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="a%29rxo%2Fntwn">ἀρχόντων</w> <w lemma="kata%5C">κατὰ</w> <w lemma="du%2Fnamin">δύναμιν</w>.

<w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="loipoi%5C">λοιποὶ</w> <w lemma="pa%2Fntes">πάντες</w> <w lemma="o%29mnu%2Fousi">ὀμνύουσι</w> <w lemma="kaq%27">καθ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%28%2Fna">ἕνα</w> <w lemma="proporeuo%2Fmenoi">προπορευόμενοι</w>, <w lemma="tou%3Dt%27">τοῦτ᾽</w> <w lemma="au%29to%5C">αὐτὸ</w> <w lemma="dhlou%3Dntes">δηλοῦντες</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Fti">ὅτι</w> <w lemma="poih%2Fsousi">ποιήσουσι</w> <w lemma="pa%2Fnta">πάντα</w> <w lemma="kaqa%2Fper">καθάπερ</w> <w lemma="o%28">ὁ</w> <w lemma="prw%3Dtos">πρῶτος</w>.

<w lemma=""></w> <w lemma="%2Akata%5C">Κατὰ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="au%29tou%5Cs">αὐτοὺς</w> <w lemma="kairou%5Cs">καιροὺς</w> <w lemma="oi%28">οἱ</w> <w lemma="ta%5Cs">τὰς</w> <w lemma="u%28pa%2Ftous">ὑπάτους</w> <w lemma="a%29rxa%5Cs">ἀρχὰς</w> <w lemma="e%29%2Fxontes">ἔχοντες</w> <w lemma="paragge%2Fllousi">παραγγέλλουσι</w> <w lemma="toi%3Ds">τοῖς</w> <w lemma="a%29%2Frxousi">ἄρχουσι</w> <w lemma="toi%3Ds">τοῖς</w> <w lemma="a%29po%5C">ἀπὸ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="summaxi%2Fdwn">συμμαχίδων</w> <w lemma="po%2Flewn">πόλεων</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29k">ἐκ</w> <w lemma="th%3Ds">τῆς</w> <w lemma="%2A%29itali%2Fas">Ἰταλίας</w>, <w lemma="e%29c">ἐξ</w> <w lemma="w%28%3Dn">ὧν</w> <w lemma="a%29%5Cn">ἂν</w> <w lemma="bou%2Flwntai">βούλωνται</w> <w lemma="sustrateu%2Fein">συστρατεύειν</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="summa%2Fxous">συμμάχους</w>, <w lemma="diasafou%3Dntes">διασαφοῦντες</w> <w lemma="to%5C">τὸ</w> <w lemma="plh%3Dqos">πλῆθος</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="h%28me%2Fran">ἡμέραν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="to%2Fpon">τόπον</w>, <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="o%28%5Cn">ὃν</w> <w lemma="deh%2Fsei">δεήσει</w> <w lemma="parei%3Dnai">παρεῖναι</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="kekrime%2Fnous">κεκριμένους</w>.

<w lemma="ai%28">αἱ</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="po%2Fleis">πόλεις</w> <w lemma="paraplhsi%2Fan">παραπλησίαν</w> <w lemma="poihsa%2Fmenai">ποιησάμεναι</w> <w lemma="th%3D%7C">τῇ</w> <w lemma="proeirhme%2Fnh%7C">προειρημένῃ</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="e%29klogh%5Cn">ἐκλογὴν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Frkon">ὅρκον</w> <w lemma="e%29kpe%2Fmpousin">ἐκπέμπουσιν</w>, <w lemma="a%29%2Frxonta">ἄρχοντα</w> <w lemma="susth%2Fsasai">συστήσασαι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="misqodo%2Fthn">μισθοδότην</w>.

<w lemma=""></w> <w lemma="%2Aoi%28">Οἱ</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="th%3D%7C">τῇ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rw%2Fmh%7C">Ῥώμῃ</w> <w lemma="xili%2Farxoi">χιλίαρχοι</w> <w lemma="meta%5C">μετὰ</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="e%29corkismo%5Cn">ἐξορκισμὸν</w> <w lemma="paraggei%2Flantes">παραγγείλαντες</w> <w lemma="h%28me%2Fran">ἡμέραν</w> <w lemma="e%28ka%2Fstw%7C">ἑκάστῳ</w> <w lemma="stratope%2Fdw%7C">στρατοπέδῳ</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="to%2Fpon">τόπον</w>, <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="o%28%5Cn">ὃν</w> <w lemma="deh%2Fsei">δεήσει</w> <w lemma="parei%3Dnai">παρεῖναι</w> <w lemma="xwri%5Cs">χωρὶς</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="o%28%2Fplwn">ὅπλων</w>, <w lemma="to%2Fte">τότε</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="a%29fh%3Dkan">ἀφῆκαν</w>.

<w lemma="paragenome%2Fnwn">παραγενομένων</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="taxqei%3Dsan">ταχθεῖσαν</w> <w lemma="h%28me%2Fran">ἡμέραν</w> <w lemma="diale%2Fgousi">διαλέγουσι</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="a%29ndrw%3Dn">ἀνδρῶν</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="newta%2Ftous">νεωτάτους</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="penixrota%2Ftous">πενιχροτάτους</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="grosfoma%2Fxous">γροσφομάχους</w>, <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="e%28ch%3Ds">ἑξῆς</w> <w lemma="tou%2Ftois">τούτοις</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="a%28sta%2Ftous">ἁστάτους</w> <w lemma="kaloume%2Fnous">καλουμένους</w>, <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="a%29kmaiota%2Ftous">ἀκμαιοτάτους</w> <w lemma="tai%3Ds">ταῖς</w> <w lemma="h%28liki%2Fais">ἡλικίαις</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="pri%2Fgkipas">πρίγκιπας</w>, <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="presbuta%2Ftous">πρεσβυτάτους</w> <w lemma="ei%29s">εἰς</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="triari%2Fous">τριαρίους</w>.

<w lemma="au%28%3Dtai">αὗται</w> <w lemma="ga%2Fr">γάρ</w> <w lemma="ei%29si">εἰσι</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tosau%3Dtai">τοσαῦται</w> <w lemma="diaforai%5C">διαφοραὶ</w> <w lemma="para%5C">παρὰ</w> <w lemma="%2A%28rwmai%2Fois">Ῥωμαίοις</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="o%29nomasiw%3Dn">ὀνομασιῶν</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="h%28likiw%3Dn">ἡλικιῶν</w>, <w lemma="e%29%2Fti">ἔτι</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="kaqoplismw%3Dn">καθοπλισμῶν</w> <w lemma="e%29n">ἐν</w> <w lemma="e%28ka%2Fstw%7C">ἑκάστῳ</w> <w lemma="stratope%2Fdw%7C">στρατοπέδῳ</w>.

<w lemma="diairou%3Dsi">διαιροῦσι</w> <w lemma="d%27">δ᾽</w> <w lemma="au%29tou%5Cs">αὐτοὺς</w> <w lemma="to%5Cn">τὸν</w> <w lemma="tro%2Fpon">τρόπον</w> <w lemma="tou%3Dton">τοῦτον</w> <w lemma="w%28%2Fst%27">ὥστ᾽</w> <w lemma="ei%29%3Dnai">εἶναι</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="me%5Cn">μὲν</w> <w lemma="presbuta%2Ftous">πρεσβυτάτους</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="triari%2Fous">τριαρίους</w> <w lemma="prosagoreuome%2Fnous">προσαγορευομένους</w> <w lemma="e%28cakosi%2Fous">ἑξακοσίους</w>, <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="pri%2Fgkipas">πρίγκιπας</w> <w lemma="xili%2Fous">χιλίους</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="diakosi%2Fous">διακοσίους</w>, <w lemma="i%29%2Fsous">ἴσους</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="tou%2Ftois">τούτοις</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="a%28sta%2Ftous">ἁστάτους</w>, <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="loipou%5Cs">λοιποὺς</w> <w lemma="kai%5C">καὶ</w> <w lemma="newta%2Ftous">νεωτάτους</w> <w lemma="grosfofo%2Frous">γροσφοφόρους</w>.

<w lemma="e%29a%5Cn">ἐὰν</w> <w lemma="de%5C">δὲ</w> <w lemma="plei%2Fous">πλείους</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="tetrakisxili%2Fwn">τετρακισχιλίων</w> <w lemma="w%29%3Dsi">ὦσι</w>, <w lemma="kata%5C">κατὰ</w> <w lemma="lo%2Fgon">λόγον</w> <w lemma="poiou%3Dntai">ποιοῦνται</w> <w lemma="th%5Cn">τὴν</w> <w lemma="diai%2Fresin">διαίρεσιν</w> <w lemma="plh%5Cn">πλὴν</w> <w lemma="tw%3Dn">τῶν</w> <w lemma="triari%2Fwn">τριαρίων</w>. <w lemma="tou%2Ftous">τούτους</w> <w lemma="ai%29ei%5C">αἰεὶ</w> <w lemma="tou%5Cs">τοὺς</w> <w lemma="i%29%2Fsous">ἴσους</w>.

The enrolment having been completed in this manner, those of the tribunes on whom this duty falls collect the newly-enrolled soldiers, and picking out of the whole body a single man whom they think the most suitable make him take the oath that he will obey his officers and execute their orders as far as is in his power.

Then the others come forward and each in his turn takes his oath simply that he will do the same as the first man.

At the same time the consuls send their orders to the allied cities in <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Italy&groupId=656&placeId=1199">Italy</a> which they wish to contribute troops, stating the numbers required and the day and place at which the men selected must present themselves.

The magistrates, choosing the men and administering the oath in the manner above described, send them off, appointing a commander and a paymaster.

The tribunes in <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Rome&groupId=935&placeId=1669">Rome</a>, after administering the oath, fix for each legion a day and place at which the men are to present themselves without arms and then dismiss them.

When they come to the rendezvous, they choose the youngest and poorest to form the velites; the next to them are made hastati; those in the prime of life principes; and the oldest of all triarii,

these being the names among the Romans of the four classes in each legion distinct in age and equipment.

They divide them so that the senior men known as triarii number six hundred, the principes twelve hundred, the hastati twelve hundred, the rest, consisting of the youngest, being velites. If the legion consists of more than four thousand men, they divide accordingly, except as regards the triarii, the number of whom is always the same.

Walbank Commentary

Overview

6.21.1 - 6.21.3

Taking of the oath (sacramentum): cf. Marquardt, ii. 384–5; Veith, Heerwesen, 305.

6.21.4 - 6.21.5

Enrolment and oath of socii. The <w lang="el-GR">ἄρχων</w> and <w lang="el-GR">μισθοδότής</w> (§ 5) are native officers (cf. 26. 5 n.).

6.21.6 - 6.21.10

Grouping of recruits. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">εἰς τοὺς γροσφομάχου ς</w>:</emph> cf. i. 33. 9 n. The uelites opened the battle in conjunction with the citizen cavalry; and, according to Livy (xxvi. 4. 4 ff.), they came into action on the cavalry horses, behind the riders. But this whole account is suspect, including the assertion (Livy, xxvi. 4. 10) that the uelites were now (211) first instituted. The earlier light-armed were called rorarii, a name which persisted till the end of the second century (cf. Lucilius, vii. 290, x. 393; E. Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 260); but Livy already mentions uelites in xxi. 55. 11 (<a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Trebia&groupId=1044&placeId=1838">Trebia</a>), xxiii. 29. 3 (battle against Hannibal), xxiv. 34. 5 <milestone unit="page" n="701">[701]</milestone> (<a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Syracuse&groupId=994&placeId=1753">Syracuse</a>), and even in xxvi. 4. 4 he writes as though they were familiar ('praefixa ferro quale hastis uelitaribus inest'), and in i. 33. 9 P. mentions <w lang="el-GR">γροσφομάχοι</w> in Regulus' army in the First Punic War. Hence it seems unlikely that uelites were in fact a new invention in 211 (so E. Gabba, Athen., 1949, 182–3); they seem rather to be a development of rorarii under a new name (cf. Fr. Fröhlich, Die Bedeutung des zweiten punischen Krieges fr die Entwicklung des römischen Heerwesens (Leipzig, 1884), 37–43; Veith, Heerwesen, 309; E. Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 260), and judging from Lucilius (above) this new name only gradually imposed itself. See also i. 26. 6 n. where the existence of uelites seems to be implied in the attribution of the title triarii to the fourth naval squadron.

6.21.7 - 6.21.8

Hastati, principes, triarii. Though first mentioned here, these groups are undoubtedly older than P., as their names show. Varro (Ling. v. 89) records that 'hastati dicti, qui primi hastis pugnabant, pilani, qui pilis, principes, qui a principio gladiis: ea post commutata re militari minus illustria sunt' (here pilani is another name for triarii; cf. Ovid, Fasti, iii. 129). In any case the names suggest that the principes were originally the front-line fighters, and bore some weapon distinct from the hasta, from which the hastati took their name. At some date now unknown the pilum was adopted by both principes and hastati, and the latter were brought forward into the front line. The triarii used the hasta (23. 16), and the alternative name pilani probably comes from pilae in the sense of 'files', despite Varro's and Festus' connecting of the word with the pilum (cf. Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 253–4; Schulten, RE, 'pilum', col. 1335); pilani are troops formed in columns. On the pilum see 23. 8–11 n. The manipular army, with its three ranks of hastati, principes, and triarii, existed in essentials by the time of the war with Pyrrhus, but whereas originally their tactical significance depended on distinction of census, reflected in differences of equipment, by the time of the Second Punic War, and even more when P. was writing, the distinction of at any rate between principes and hastati was one not of equipment, but of seniority; cf. Livy, viii. 8. 6–7, where the hastati are flos iuuenum pubescentium, the principes are robustior aetas, and the triarii are ueteranus miles spectatae uirtutis, in a passage which projects back into the age of the Latin wars the conditions of the manipular army (Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 265). See further Marquardt, ii. 327–8, 358 ff.; Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 198 ff.; Veith, Heerwesen, 261 ff., 269–70, 308–9. Sumner, JRS, 1970, 68 derives pilani (as a name for triarii) not from pilae, 'files', but from pilus, 'maniple', and consequently dates the name to after the manipular reform.

6.21.9 - 6.21.10

Number in the legion. For the normal figure of 4,200 cf. ii. 24. 13; rounded off, iii. 107. 10, <w lang="el-GR">περὶ τετρακισχιλίους</w>; cf. vi. 32. 1. Legions are mentioned of 5,000 (iii. 107. 10, vi. 20. 8; Livy, xxii. 36. 3, etc.), 5,200 (ii. 24. 3; cf. Livy, xl. 1. 5, 18. 5, 36. 8, xli. 9. 2, xlii. 31. 2, xliii. 12. 10, xliv. 21. 10), and from the time of the Third Macedonian <milestone unit="page" n="702">[702]</milestone> War 6,000 (Livy, xlii. 31. 2, xliii. 12. 3, xliv. 21. 8) or 6,200 (found under the elder Scipio, Livy, xxix. 24. 14, xxxv. 2. 4; regular after Marius). Calculation makes the number of uelites 1,200.

6.21.22 - 6.21.22

Equipment of the uelites: see Marquardt, ii. 343; Veith, Heerwesen, 326–7.

6.21.4 - 6.21.4

The hasta uelitaris. To be distinguished from the long thrusting lance of the triarii. Livy (xxiv. 34. 5) also calls it 'telum ad remittendum inhabile imperitis' (Klotz, Livius, 113–14, points out that there is nothing equivalent to this in P. viii. 4. 1, Livy's source, and suggests that the addition is from the present passage; but Livy did not need a specific statement in P. to tell him what a hasta uelitaris was like). Each man carried seven according to Livy (xxvi. 4. 4; cf. Frontin. Strat. iv. 7. 29; Val. Max. ii. 3. 3); Lucilius, vii. 290 Marx is not evidence to the contrary (Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 260). <w lang="el-GR">σπιθαμιαῖον</w> is 'a span long'; the head was 'beaten out and sharpened to a fine point'. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">κοινὸν . . . τὸ βέλος</w>:</emph> similarly, as Schweighaeuser observes, elephants, because of their untrustworthiness, <w lang="el-GR">καλοῦσι κοινοὺς πολεμίους</w> (App. Hisp. 46).

6.21.23 - 6.21.23

Equipment of the hastati, principes, and triarii. This consists of the scutum <w lang="el-GR">(θυρεός)</w>, gladius <w lang="el-GR">(μάχαιρα)</w>, pila <w lang="el-GR">(ὑσσοί</w> ), crista galea <w lang="el-GR">(πτέρινος στέφανος)</w>, pectorale <w lang="el-GR">(καρδιοφύλαξ)</w> or lorica <w lang="el-GR">(θῶραξ)</w>; but the triarii have hastae instead of pila. How far this description is valid for the Second Punic War and how far for the date of composition is uncertain; Veith (Heerwesen, 324) points out that there was a gradual development, that P. writing towards the middle of the second century stood at its end (greaves and hastae 'standen . . . damals sicher schon auf dem Aussterbeetat'), and consequently that P. may be describing a situation partly based on the official regulations (but in practice obsolete) and partly true of the Second Punic War.

6.21.8 - 6.21.11

The pilum <w lang="el-GR">(ὑσσός)</w> was the throwing javelin of the hastati and principes. The ancient view (Ined. Vat.) that the Romans took it from the Samnites is accepted by Ed. Meyer (Kl. Schr. ii. 226–31, 248 n. 1; cf. Reinach, DS, 'pilum', 481). But the pilum is not attested as a Samnite weapon, and Schulten has made out a convincing case for deriving it from <a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Spain&groupId=983&placeId=1735">Spain</a>, like the gladius (Rh. Mus., 1911, 573 ff.; 1914, 477 f.; RE, 'pilum', cols. 1336 ff.); cf. Athen, vi. 273, <w lang="el-GR">καὶ παρὰ Σαυνιτῶν δὲ ἔμαθον θυρεοῦ χρῆσιν, παρὰ δὲ Ἰβήρων γαίσων</w> (for <w lang="el-GR">γαῖσον</w> = <milestone unit="page" n="704">[704]</milestone> pilum see xviii. 18. 4). The existence of a Spanish weapon, the phalarica, similar to the Roman pilum, is well known (cf. especially Livy, xxi. 8. 10). Since P. i. 40. 12 is our earliest authentic reference to the use of the <w lang="el-GR">ὑσσός</w> as a Roman weapon, it was probably taken, like the gladius, from Spanish mercenaries during the First Punic War (Schulten, RE, 'pilum', col. 1344, modifying his earlier view that it was adopted at the time of Hannibala view justly criticized by Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 248 n. 1). Schulten has a detailed discussion of P.'s pilum, heavy and light, with diagrams (from Schramm) in RE, 'pilum', cols. 1349–54. He shows that a heavy pilum with a 3–cubit shaft (1.40 metres) and 4 fingers (7.7 cm.) wide, equipped with an iron head of like length, 1 fingers (2.8 cm.) wide where it fits into the shaft, would weigh 8.5 kg. and be too heavy to throw. Veith (Heerwesen, 326) thinks P. is describing some transitional, experimental, weapon perhaps used by Scipio and given an undeserved immortality by P. 'aus Piett'; this seems most improbable, and a more likely explanation is that P.'s pilum, like the later one, was thinner except where the shaft was fitted to the head (contra Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 250 n. 5). Since half the iron head was let into the shaft (23. 11), the total length of the pilum was c. 2.10 m., and its weight, allowing for tapering, 4.68 kg. (or in the case of a round pilum, 3.69 kg.). The lighter pilum, used against more distant targets, and akin to the later Roman weapon, is calculated to weigh only c. 2 kg. For contemporary pila found near Numantia see Schulten, RE, 'pilum', cols. 1354–7. P. Couissin, 52 ff., believes that the pilum developed from the uerutum in the fifth century under local influence and that it was later influenced by Gaulish and Iberian javelins; Cf. Scullard, Hist. <emph rend="superscript">3</emph> , 338 n. 1.

6.21.24 - 6.21.24

Organization of recruits and appointment of officers. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ταξιάρχους</w>:</emph> 'centurions'; P. assigns the appointment of centurions and (25. 1) decuriones to the military tribunes, and that of optiones to the centurions or (25. 1) decurions, though normally the appointment of officers was a prerogative of the consuls (Livy, xlii. 33. 6; Cic. Pis. 88). Later, according to Varro (Ling. v. 91) optiones and decurions were both appointed by the military tribunes. Mommsen (St.-R. i. 120 n. 4) suggests that the consul possessed the power de iure, but that for convenience the de facto appointments were carried out by subordinates. <milestone unit="page" n="706">[706]</milestone> <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">μετὰ δὲ τούτους ἑτέραν ἐκλογήν</w>:</emph> these would form the thirty centuriones posteriores in contrast to the priores already chosen (cf. Livy, xlii. 34. 7 f.). Each prior, whether hastatus, princeps, or triarius, was higher in rank than any posterior (cf. Veith, Heerwesen, 320); on the relative positions of prior and posterior see further § 7.

6.21.25 - 6.21.25

Appointment and equipment of cavalry. They are divided into ten turmae ( <w lang="el-GR">ἶ λαι)</w>, each of which has three decurions <w lang="el-GR">(ἰλάρχαι)</w> and three optiones <w lang="el-GR">(οὐραγοί)</w>; cf. Varro, Ling. v. 91; Festus, p. 484 Lindsay; Isid. Etym. ix. 3. 51. On the cavalry equipment see A. Alföldi, Der frhrömische Reiteradel und seine Standesabzeichen (Baden-Baden, 1952), 49–50, who illustrates P.'s account of the earlier dress of the equites from a wall-picture on the Esquiline; cf. Gelzer, Kl. Schr. i. 224.

6.21.11 - 6.21.11

Roman imitation of others: on this theme see i. 20. 15 n.

Specifics

6.21.1 - 6.21.1

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οἱ προσήκοντες τῶν χιλιάρχων</w>:</emph> 'the tribunes on whom this duty falls'.

6.21.2 - 6.21.2

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἦ μὴν πειθαρχήσειν κτλ</w>.:</emph> cf. Dion. Hal. x. 18, <w lang="el-GR">τὸν στρατιωτικὸν ὅρκον, ἀκολου θήσειν τοῖς ὑπάτοις, ἐφ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">οὓς ἂν καλῶνται πολέμου ς καὶ μήτε ἀπολείψειν τὰ σημεῖα μήτε ἄ λλο πράξειν μηθὲν ὲναντίον τῷ νόμῳ</w>, xi. 43, <w lang="el-GR">ὅ τε γὰρ ὅρκος ὁ στρατιωτικός, ὃν ἁπάντων μάλιστα ἐμπεδοῦσι</w> e<w lang="el-GR">Ρωμαῖοι, τοῖς στρατηγοῖς ἀκολουθεῖν κελεύει τοὺς στρατευομένους, ὅ ποι ποτ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">ἂν ἄ γωσιν</w> .

6.21.3 - 6.21.3

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τοῦτ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">αὐτὸ δηλοῦντες κτλ</w>.:</emph> cf. Paulus, epit. Festi, p. 250 Lindsay, 'praeiurationes facere dicuntur hi qui ante alios conceptis uerbis iurant: post quos in eadem uerba iurantes tantummodo dicunt: idem in me'; cf. Livy, ii. 45. 14. Anyone breaking his oath became sacer (Macrob. Sat. iii. 7. 5), and could be killed with impunity.

6.21.1 - 6.21.1

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">μάχαιραν . . . καὶ γρόσφους καὶ πάρμην</w>:</emph> cf. Livy, xxxviii. 21. 13, 'hic miles (i.e. one of the uelites) tripedalem parmam habet et in dextera hastas, quibus eminus utitur; gladio Hispaniensi est cinctus'; id. xxvi. 4. 4.

6.21.3 - 6.21.3

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">λιτῷ περικεφαλαίῳ</w>:</emph> a helmet without a crest (contrast 23. 12). The <w lang="el-GR">λυκεία</w>, wolf's skin, marks out the galea or galerus from the cassis; cf. Prop. iv. 10. 20, 'et galea hirsuta compta lupina iuba'; Virg. Aen. vii. 688 f., 'fuluosque lupi de pelle galeros tegmen habent capiti'. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τοῖς κατὰ μέρος ἡ γεμόσι</w>:</emph> 'the subordinate commanders'.

6.21.2 - 6.21.2

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">θυρεός</w>:</emph> the scutum, worn by all three divisions of the manipular army, is called a Sabine weapon in Plutarch (Rom. 21. 2), but is usually regarded as Samnite (cf. Ined. Vat.; Athen. vi. 273 f.; Clem. <milestone unit="page" n="703">[703]</milestone> Al. Strom. i. 16. 362 P.; Euseb. Praep. ev. x. 6 [475 D]); the Samnite scutum is described in Livy (ix. 40. 2); cf. Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 234 ff. The scutum was four-cornered and with a slight cylindrical curve <w lang="el-GR">(τῆς κυρτῆς ἐπιφανείας)</w>, not very pronounced (cf. Steinwender, Klio, 1910, 446 ff.), despite Dio's description of it (xlix. 30) as <w lang="el-GR">σωληνοει δής</w>, 'pipeshaped'. See the illustration in Veith, Heerwesen, fig. 111. The use of the metal rim at the top and bottom is confirmed by Plutarch (Cam. 40. 4) and Polyaenus (viii. 7. 2). The <w lang="el-GR">κόγχος</w> (umbo), an iron boss in the middle of the shield, served also to protect the hand holding the shield just behind it. See Fiebiger, RE, 'scutum', cols. 915–16; P. Couissin, 142 ff., 237 ff.; Marquardt, ii. 326; Veith, Heerwesen, 324–6. A. Treloar, CR, 1971, 3–5, rejects Bttner-Wobst's emendation on the grounds that it implies too heavy a shield, and that some reference to curvature is required; he therefore proposes to read <w lang="el-GR">ὁ δ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">ἐπὶ μέσου τοῦ τμήματος παλαιστιαῖος</w>, 'and the shield at the middle of the segment measures three inches'. But it is very doubtful if such a phrase would convey the meaning that the distance between the shield and the imaginary straight line drawn from rim to rim measured (at its widest point) three inches. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τὸ δ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">ἐπ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">ἴτυος</w> 〈<w lang="el-GR">πάχος</w>〉 <w lang="el-GR">ἔτι καὶ παλαιστιαῖον</w>:</emph> so Bttner-Wobst for the MSS. <w lang="el-GR">ὁ δὲ μίζους ἔτι</w> (FDG, <w lang="el-GR">ἐστὶ</w> HL) <w lang="el-GR">καὶ παλαιστιαῖος</w>. This makes no sense, even reading <w lang="el-GR">μείζων</w> with Hultsch and Schweighaeuser. Meyer (Kl. Schr. ii. 200 n. 2) despaired of the passage: 'die Korruptel . . . scheint unheilbar; gemeint war wohl, da<w lang="el-GR">β</w> die Lange auch noch um eine <w lang="el-GR">παλαιστή</w> ( Fu<w lang="el-GR">β)</w> grö<w lang="el-GR">β</w>er sein konnte.' But BttnerWobst's emendation, if bold, makes good sense: some reference to the thickness of the shield (which would taper towards the rim) seems relevant to the description.

6.21.4 - 6.21.4

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τάς τε καταφορὰς τῶν μαχαιρῶν</w>:</emph> 'the cutting-strokes of swords' (cf. ii. 30. 8 n., iii. 114. 3 n.).

6.21.6 - 6.21.6

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">μάχαιρα</w>:</emph> according to fg. 179, the Spanish sword was adopted in <w lang="el-GR">τὰ κατ</w>f <w lang="el-GR">Ἀννίβαν</w>, i.e. during the Second Punic War; but it is clear from ii. 30. 8 and 33. 5 (cf. iii. 114. 3 n.) that the sword used during the Gallic tumultus of 225 was virtually the same cutting and thrusting weapon, and the Romans may have adopted it from Spanish mercenaries fighting for the Carthaginians in the First Punic War, as they did the pilum (Schulten, RE, 'pilum', col. 1344). On the gladius see Veith, Heerwesen, 325 (with fig. 118); Marquardt, ii. 338; Couissin, 139 ff., 220 ff.; Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 200 n. 1; A. Schulten, Numantia, i (Munich, 1914), 209 ff. It was relatively short, a trifle over 2 ft., and had two cutting edges.

6.21.7 - 6.21.7

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">κέντημα διάφορον καὶ καταφορὰν . . . βίαιον</w>:</emph> cf. fg. 179, <w lang="el-GR">κέντημα πρακτικὸν καὶ καταφορὰν ἔχει δυναμένην ἐξ ἀμφοῖν τοῖν μεροῖν</w>. Here <w lang="el-GR">καταφορά</w> = 'cutting edge'; contrast § 4. <w lang="el-GR">ὀβελίσκος</w> is the blade.

6.21.8 - 6.21.8

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">περικεφαλαία χαλκῆ καὶ προκνημίς</w>:</emph> cassis and ocrea. For the bronze helmet see Veith, Heerwesen, fig. 120 (incorrectly called galea); it was open and without a vizor. For the crest worn on it see § 12; contrast the galea (22. 3 n.). The use of the singular <w lang="el-GR">προκνημίς</w> may indicate the use of a single greave (Lammert, RE, 'ocreae', col. 1778); shortly afterwards greaves are no longer worn.

6.21.9 - 6.21.9

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οἱ μὲν στρογγύλοι . . . οἱ δὲ τετράγωνοι</w>:</emph> i.e. some had a circular, others a square cross-section. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">σιβυνίοις . . . συμμέτροις</w>:</emph> 'moderate-sized hunting-spears'; <w lang="el-GR">σιβύνιον</w> is an otherwise unknown diminutive of <w lang="el-GR">σιβύνη</w>.

6.21.10 - 6.21.10

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">βέλος . . . ἀγκιστρωτόν</w>:</emph> 'barbed head'; cf. Philo, Bel. 95 l. 45, <w lang="el-GR">ἐμβόλια ἀγκιστρωτά</w> (Diels-Schramm, Abh. Berlin. Akad., 1919, no. 12, p. 64).

6.21.11 - 6.21.11

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τὴν ἔνδεσιν καὶ τὴν χρείαν . . . ἀσφαλίζονται</w>:</emph> 'they ensure its firm attachment and its utility'. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἕως μέσων τῶν ξ ύλω ν ἐνδιδέντες</w>:</emph> 'fastening it into the wooden haft up to the middle point', so that the iron is enclosed inside the wooden shaft up to a half of its length. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">λαβίσι καταπερονῶντες</w>:</emph> 'bolting it with rivets'. Plutarch (<a class="linkToPlace" target="_blank" href="/place?placename=Mar&groupId=184&placeId=431">Mar</a>. 25) calls such rivets <w lang="el-GR">περόναι</w>. <milestone unit="page" n="705">[705]</milestone> <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἐν τῷ πυθμένι καὶ τῇ . . . συναφῇ</w>:</emph> 'at the bottom where it joins . . .' .

6.21.14 - 6.21.14

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">καρδιοφύλακα</w>:</emph> a bronze sheet, a span (c. 9 in.) square, this was of great antiquity. It formed part of the dress of the Salii, and examples from the seventh and sixth centuries have been found in graves at Tarquinii and on the Esquiline; cf. Meyer, Kl. Schr. ii. 201.

6.21.15 - 6.21.15

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οἱ . . . ὑπὲρ τὰς μυρίας τιμώμενοι δραχμάς</w>:</emph> i.e. members of the first (Servian) property class. If the drachma is equated with the denarius (cf. ii. 15. 1 n.), P. here makes the qualification for the first classes 100,000 sextantal asses (ten of which made a denarius). This is also Livy's figure (i. 43. 1, centum milium aeris . . . censum) and Dionysius' (iv. 16); but Pliny (Nat. hist. xxxiii. 43) and Festus ('infra classem', p. 100 Lindsay) give 120,000. The lex Voconia (169) laid impedimenta on testators possessing above a certain property; and this limit, which has been reasonably identified with the firstclass census, is variously given as 125,000 aeris (Gellius), 100,000 aeris (Gaius), 100,000 sestertii (Ps.-Asconius), and 25,000 drachmae = 25,000 denarii = 100,000 sestertii (Dio). Mattingly (JRS, 1937, 99 ff.) argues for Gellius' figure; but his argument rests on the improbable view that P.'s drachma is an Aeginetan drachma (cf. ii. 15. 1 n.). The alternative, that the lex Voconia defined the figure as 100,000 libral asses = 100,000 sestertii, is certainly unlikely; but Mommsen (St.-R. iii. 1. 249 f. n. 4) may well be right in thinking that asses (undefined, but in fact sextantal) were taken to be libral asses in order to circumvent the provisions of the law (cf. Steinwenter, RE, 'Lex Voconia', cols. 2419–20). This would lend support to P.'s figure. In l. 18 of the note delete '(i.e. sesterces)'; the equation of libral asses with sestertii, made by Mattingly, cannot stand, for the sestertius was worth 2 sextantal asses (5 unciae), whereas the libral as was notionally 12 and in fact 10 unciae (a point I owe to Mr. M. H. Crawford). <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἁλυσιδωτοὺς . . . θώρακας</w>:</emph> 'breastplates wrought in chain', the lorica hamata. This and the <w lang="el-GR">καρδιοφύλαξ</w> were perhaps worn over a leather jerkin; cf. Grosse, RE, 'lorica', cols. 1444–5. On both see Couissin, 157 ff., 265 ff.

6.21.16 - 6.21.16

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">δόρατα</w>:</emph> the hasta, still used by the triarii, was the earlier weapon of the whole army (as the name hastati indicates) and was suited to the phalanx formation. With the gradual standardization which culminated in the Marian reforms it gave way to the pilum in all lines.

6.21.2 - 6.21.2

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ὧν ὁ πρῶτος αἱρεθείς</w>:</emph> the first man chosen will be the primus pilus prior, the senior centurion of the first maniple of the triarii. Veith (Heerwesen, 320–1) argues that the reference is to the first centurion of the first maniple of each group, i.e. of hastati, principes, and triarii; for at a later date these three maniples together made up the first cohort, and their three senior centurions all served on the military council (35. 4 n.) as primi ordines (Caes. BG, v. 30. 1, vi. 7. 8). This is possible; on the other hand, the antecedent of <w lang="el-GR">ὧ?ν</w> is <w lang="el-GR">τούτους ἅ παντας</w>, and P. certainly appears to be referring to one man, not three. Nor were the practices of the army based on the cohort necessarily identical with those of the manipular army. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">οὐραγούς</w>:</emph> 'optiones': the optio relieved the centurion of administrative duties; he may be compared to the quarter-master; cf. Veg. ii. 7, 'optiones . . . uicarii solent uniuersa curare'; Paulus, epit. Festi, p. 201 Lindsay, 'rerum priuatarum ministrum', Festus, p. 216 Lindsay, 'adiutor dabatur centurioni a tribuno militum'. Originally, however, he was the centurion's representative; cf. Marquardt, ii 545; Lammert, RE, 'optio (1)', cols. 806–7.

6.21.4 - 6.21.4

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τοὺς ἐπιβάλλοντας κατὰ τὸ πλῆθος</w>:</emph> 'the appropriate number'.

6.21.5 - 6.21.5

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">τάγμα καὶ σπεῖραν καὶ σημαίαν</w>:</emph> ordo, manipulus, and signum.

6.21.6 - 6.21.6

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">σημαιαφόρους</w>:</emph> 'signiferi'. There was one signum for each maniple; cf. Varro, Ling. v. 88, 'manipulos exercitus minimas partes, quae unum secuntur signum'. See Marquardt, ii. 345. The second signifer was evidently to act as a substitute should anything befall the first; and this leads P. to discuss the appointment of two centurions, likewise, to each maniple (§ 7). On the functions of the substitute signifer see the indecisive and not very clear discussion of Kubitschek, RE, 'signifer', cols. 2350 ff.

6.21.7 - 6.21.7

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">δύο . . . ἡγεμόνας</w>:</emph> since each maniple contained two centuries, it had two centurions; but the centurion of the right-hand century always took precedence and commanded the whole maniple. He is the centurio prior <w lang="el-GR">(πρῶτος αἱρεθείς)</w> and his colleague the centurio posterior (cf. § 1 n.). Each led his own men into battle, but the prior was in command. It was normal Roman practice for the leader of a whole unit, even of the whole army, to command the right (Veith, Heerwesen, 317–18); 'die ausdrckliche Bestimmung des prior zum Fhrer des rechten Flgels besagte fr den antiken, in den militrischen Grundlagen seiner Zeit geschulten, Leser ohne weiteres, da er zugleich als Kommandant des Ganzen zu betrachten war.' For each centurion to command his own century independently <milestone unit="page" n="707">[707]</milestone> would make havoc of the organization of the legion, since clearly the question whether at any given moment the maniple or the century was the tactical unit could not be allowed to depend on the fate of one of the centurions. Moreover, other evidence strongly supports the view that the smallest tactical unit was the maniple (35. 12; and for the cavalry analogy, 25. 2; Livy, xxvi. 5. 15, 6. 1, xlii. 34).

6.21.9 - 6.21.9

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">βαθεῖς . . . ταῖς ψυχαῖς</w>:</emph> 'of a sedate spirit' (Paton). <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἐξ ἀκεραίου</w>:</emph> 'when the issue is undecided'.

6.21.3 - 6.21.3

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">θώρακας</w>:</emph> this may be the chain-mail breastplate worn by the first class (23. 15), perhaps over a leather jerkin. <emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἐν περιζώμασιν</w>:</emph> cf. ii. 9. 3, and below, <w lang="el-GR">γυμνοί</w>. The most essential of their light garments was the subligaculum or campestre, and perhaps also the trabea.

6.21.5 - 6.21.5

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">πρὸ τοῦ . . . προσερεῖσαι</w>:</emph> 'before the iron tip became fixed in anything'; <w lang="el-GR">προσερεῖσαι</w> is intransitive.

6.21.6 - 6.21.6

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">ἄνευ σαυρωτήρων</w>:</emph> 'without spikes at the butt-end'. Such a spike would serve as a second point for dealing a further blow (cf. § 9), should the tip break off (as happened (xi. 18. 4) when Philopoemen killed Machanidas <w lang="el-GR">προσενέγκων τῷ σαυρωτῆρι πληγὴν ἄλλην</w> ).

6.21.7 - 6.21.7

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">διὰ τὸ μὴ στασν ἔ χειν</w>:</emph> 'as they were not firm enough'.

6.21.10 - 6.21.10

<emph rend="bold"><w lang="el-GR">πρὸς τὰς ἐπιβολὰς καὶ πρὸς τὰς ἐπιθέσεις</w>:</emph> 'against attack and assault': but Reiske may be right in taking <w lang="el-GR">ἐπιβολαί</w> to be attacks by missiles thrown from a distance; the sense would then be eminus et comminus. Paton's version 'in defence and attack' is incorrect.

Addenda & corrigenda

6.21.7 - 6.21.8

Sumner, JRS, 1970, 68 derives pilani (as a name for triarii) not from pilae, 'files', but from pilus, 'maniple', and consequently dates the name to after the manipular reform.

Polybius, Histories

Bibliography

Archaeology

Places

Walbank Commentary

Commentary