Places
TadmorAlternative names: PalmyraPlace descriptionBoth Josephus (AJ8.153-4) and the Hebrew Bible (2Chron 8.4) attributed the foundation of the city to King Solomon. The city had already been inhibited during the 3rd millennium BC. The name Tadmor was used by the Aramaic-speaking population in the 1st millennium BC to refer its name. The Seleucids generally ignored Palmyra. Its growth as a major city postdated Pompey’s destruction of the Seleucids in 64BC. It was the point that Palmyra started actively influencing the trade between the Mediterranean and Parthia. Its location at a neutral and semi-independent zone between Rome and Parthia made it as a wealthy caravan city for eastern and western traders. It became a stop on caravan routes. The city resisted Mark Antony’s attach in 41BC and it gradually developed closed link with Rome. There was some measure of Roman control in the time of Tiberius, but there was no evidence for Roman troops and taxation. Trajan erected a milestone. Hadrian visited the city in 130/1 AD. The city was imposed the status of colonia in the early 3rd century. During the threat from Persian, the Palmyrene king Odainath led the defence of the eastern provinces with the supprt from Rome. After his murder, Queen Zenobia led a full scale revolt against Rome. In AD272, Zenobia was defeated and Palmyra was besieged. Diocletian refortified the city and it was followed by a period of instability and decline. Justinian strengthened the city’s defence but the city still eventually fell in AD634 under the Islamic conquest. Little is known about the pre-Roman Palmyra. The Temple of Bel was located on the remains of its predecessor dating at least to the Hellenistic period. The present structure dates from AD45. Male Agrippa rebuilt it in the 2nd century AD and it was converted into a church in the 5th century. At the 12th century it was fortified by the Arabs as a citadel. The temple was surrounded by a 200m square courtyard and was entered through a propylaeum with a triple gateway flanked by Syrian niches. The temple proper has more common with ancient Near Eastern styles with superficial Graeco-Roman influences. The colonnaded Cardo Maximus of the city serves as a processional way leading to the Temple of Bel. A monumental arch following the model of a Roman triumphal arch was located near the Temple of Bel. A tetrapylon marks the intersection of the two sections of the cardo. Between the tetrapylon and the arch, there were a nymphaeum, the Baths of Diocletian, a theatre and the Sanctuary of Nabu. An agora was also located nearby. The decumanus intersected the cardo at the tetrapylon and it led to the Temple of Baal-Shamin. Its two courtyards and the sanctuary were built at different stages. The north temenos already existed by AD17 and the sanctuary was built in AD130. The south temenos was added soon after that. To the west of the temple are the remains of a Byzantine basilica. The decumnus leads to the northern ramparts which were probably fortified by Diocletian. The west decumanus intersects the cardo in front of the funerary temple. The decumanus continues to lead to an oval piazza. At the west of the street, the Camp of Diocletian is located on the spot of an earlier temple dedicated to Allat. The camp was laid out in the form of a square intersected by two colonnaded streets with their intersection marked by a tetrapylon. The necropolis is located outside the city. There are two categories of tombs: above and below ground. The former can be subdivided into house tombs, temple tombs and tower tombs. The south-western necropolis is made up almost entirely of hypogea. The most impressive monument is the Hypogeum of the Three Brothers, dating to the mid 2nd century AD. At a hill outside the city in the north, the Castle of Fakhr ud-Din ibn Ma‘ani was built during the 13th century AD, and was used by Fakhr ud-Din ibn Ma‘ani during the first half of the 17th century. |